MAIN KEY TERMS U SHOULD IDEALLY KNOW
- Kellogg-Briand Pact- no war
- Mukden incident- railway explosion(blame)
- Marco polo bridge- railway close to wanpang
- Tanggu Truce- china and japan no beef
- Lytton Commission- LON investigation
- Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere- occupy asia because of nationalization
- May 15 incident- killed the prime minister
- National Mobilization Act of 1938,- always be ready for war
- Tripartite Axis Pact- germany, italy pact
- Hull Note- last negotiation the us sent to japan
- Stimson Doctrine- usa does not want to get involved
Japanese Expansion?
The growth of Japanese nationalism and militarism after 1931 and the consequent expansion of Japan into East Asia led to war with China and conflict with the West. This was to culminate in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941 – an event that drew the Sino-Japanese war and the European war into a global war.
Causes of Japanese Expansion:
Japan’s foreign policy shifted from working with the west and the League of Nations in the 1920s to a more expansionist foreign policy in the 1930s.
Japan’s Decision to join the colonialists:
Japan successfully modernized, and was the first Asian nation to do so. This led them to the perplexing situation of either standing up against Western Colonialism by leading an Asian Renaissance or if they should partake in the actions of Western Colonialism.
Alas, Japan decided on the latter. Their first stop was nearby neighbor Korea. Just like Commodore Matthew Perry opened up Japan, they wanted to open up Korea to tap into their rice markets and other things. At the time China was the protectorate of Korea which kept them safe only for so long.
In 1894 Japan Invaded Korea and provoked a war with China. Japan was modern and China was not, thus they were quickly defeated in Korea, and then started an invasion towards Manchuria. This was another brutal defeat for China. Psychologically speaking this was a game changer for Japan, as they looked up to China for centuries, China had gifted them their culture, their language and other things. So after they wiped the floor with China, they stopped idolizing them and started looking at them with contempt. Suddenly the thousand year respect that Japan had for China dissolved.
The treaty which ended the war humiliated China. Japan received Taiwan and lands in Manchuria. They also had similar trading rights to that of western powers. This was the era of Imperialism led by successful western nations such as Britain, so Japan thought that if they didn’t turn to Imperialism then they would be weak.
Everywhere that Japan looked, they saw Western powers ‘flexing’ their muscles. In colonial factories the French tried to milk profits from cheap Vietnamese labor and the British, French, Russians and Americans continued to treat China as their Asian playground. China’s empire was crumbling and their neighbors were quick to pick up the pieces. This led to Russia taking control of Manchuria and Japan dominating Korea. Which caused the largest Western Nation (Russia) and Asia’s new military power (Japan) to ‘face-off’ (They now shared borders is what I mean).
In 1904 Japan suddenly launched an attack and crippled the Russian fleet, 2 days later Japan declared war on Russia. Russia was the clear favorite of this war as they were a great European power, but to their dismay, Japan had spent the last 10 years mobilizing for this conflict. This was the first time that Japan fought an non-asian country, so the Japanese thought that if they lost this war then all of the Meiji restorations would’ve been for nothing. The Japanese fought in this war as if it was a direct attack on the Japanese homeland. Japan’s eventual victory over Russia was the culmination of the Meiji modernization.
Japan’s victory sparked inspiration throughout the Asian world, as for the first time Mother Russia had fallen to puny Japan. Nationalists scattered across Asia were inspired by these actions – From Ghandi in India to the Chinese Revolutionary leader Sun yat-sen. This was a confusing situation for asian countries since they now looked up to Japan as their leader but Japan had become extremely arrogant and decided that they would rule over all of Asia. The russo-Japanese war was a turning point which led to the second world war, since Japan now felt as if they could do anything.
Fukuzawa a political figure who once urged Pan-Asian unity, had this to say: “We cannot wait for neighboring countries to become civilized to make Asia progress, we would do better to treat China and Korea in the same way as do Western nations”. Korea became Japan’s bitch and Japan installed a governor over Korea. When Korea revolted Japan went on and massacred over 12000 people and burnt villages all over the country. Japan replaced Korea’s king and then essentially became a Japanese Colony.
So Essentially Japan turned into a Colonial Power mirroring features of western ones.
Japan was now rich but they reflected and asked themselves in a time of ambivalence; was all this worth it? The Nationalist inspired by Meiji would lead to a war in the Pacific and provoke revolutions in Vietnam and Indonesia. The brief era of Western domination would end abruptly as Asians Rose to reclaim the region.
Why did Japan enter the First World War?
At the start of the conflict Japanese leaders were divided over whether to join the war.
- Some members of the military believed that Germany was the most sophisticated power and wanted to side with the Central Powers.
- However, the Navy and key government ministers wanted to honor the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, which had been renewed in 1911.
- Britain appealed to Japan for its assistance in defending its shipping against the German warships in the Far east.
On August 15 Japan sent an ultimatum to Germany which was rejected, and Emperor Taisho declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914.
Japan’s military role in the First world War:
- On September 2, 1914, Japanese troops landed in Shantung Peninsular and advance towards Tsingtao and Kiachow Bay.
- Tsingtao had fallen by November 7
- The Japanese navy attacked Kiachow from the sea while its army attacked on land. THis meant that Japan had violated Chinese neutrality by marching on Chinese soil.
- After the surrender of Tsingtao on the German Tsingtao-Tsinan railway was attacked
- In October the navy succeeded in occupying German-held pacific islands north of the equator
- The navy took over the German possessions of the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands
- Japan incurred about 200 casualties and held around 500 German POWs by the end of 1914.
Japanese Aims of the War:
- German concessions in China: the lease of Kiaochow Bay and Railway and mining concessions in the Shantung province
- Acquire German-controlled islands in the Pacific
- Increase and diversify its interests in China: extend its position and railway rights in Manchuria.
By the end of 1914, Japan focused on China instead of Germany.
- On 18 January 1915 the Japanese government issued the so-called ‘Twenty-one demands’ to China’s leader, General Yuan Shikai.
- Yuan Attempted to negotiate, but on 7 May Japan issued China with a 48 hour ultimatum to accept the demands.
- After facing Chinese and international opposition, Japan then withdrew one fifth of the demands
- Britain urged China to agree and a series of agreements were signed on 25 May 1915.
Impact of the Twenty-one demands:
- Japan gained little from these agreements and subsequent CHinese governments refused to accept their legitimacy.
- The demands established Japan as China’s most dangerous imperialist threat.
- The demands also led to tension between Japan and the US Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan warned Japan that his government would not recognize any agreement that violated US interests in China.
Agreements with the Allies during the First World War:
The US had entered the First World War in April 1917, and it was determined that Japan would not continue to take advantage of the situation to make further gains in China.
- The US continued to be openly sympathetic to China.
- In September 1917, Japan sent an ambassador to communicate that his government was committed to respecting the independence of China and the promotion of equal opportunity for all foreign trade in the country. Japan agreed to comply with this on the proviso that the US recognized it’s gains it had already made. The US and Japan then signed the Langshi-Ishii Agreement in November 1917.
- The Chinese were horrified by this ‘betrayal’ by the US.
In addition, Japan entered into a number of ‘secret understandings’ with Britain, the US, France and Italy in 1917.
- Britain recognized Japan’s claims in the Shandong Peninsula. Japan in return recognized Britain’s control of islands formerly held by Germany south of the Equator.
- The US recognized Japan’s claims in China, and Japan agreed it would not interfere in US economic concessions in China.
- Italy and France recognized Japan’s position in China. Japan also agreed to urge the CHinese government to end diplomatic relations and declare war on Germany. Japan appointed Nishihara Kamezo with the role of persuading China to enter the war against Germany.
- China entered the war in August 1917.
Did Japan achieve its aims at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919?
The war had made Japan a world power. It had a military and naval capability to support its nation’s claims to international influence and territory.
The victorious powers met to agree the terms of the peace treaties with the defeated nations. Japan sent a large delegation.
Japan was given one of only five power representation on the council of ten, which discussed peace terms. Indeed, at Versailles Japan’s delegates were ranked next in importance to France, Britain and the US.
Japan’s interest as one of the ‘Big Five’ was limited to two key aims at the Paris Peace Conference.
- International recognition of its claims to former German concessions and property in the Shandong Peninsula, the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands. Their territories were all north of the equator.
- A condemnation of racial prejudice written into the covenant of the League of Nations.
Territorial Aims:
- Shantung proved to be a major stumbling block. China had sent a strong delegation to Versailles, and had energetically and vigorously argued that the concession granted in 1915 had been forced upon China. China claimed that Japan was pursuing imperialist objectives.
- Britain attempted to find a compromise by proposing that Japan receive a League of Nations mandate over the peninsular. Wilson was amenable to this idea as he wanted to maintain British support for the new Supra-national organization, the league. Japan refused both compromises. On April 30 a clause recognized Japanese rights, subject to arrangements with China.
- The Chinese delegation refused to sign. The Shandong question was left unresolved, with Japan retaining control of the peninsula on a temporary basis until the matter could be legally decided. No date was set for a decision. News of this impasse was received with outrage in CHina and a boycott of Japanese goods was implemented.
- There was limited dispute regarding Japanese claims to the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands. Japan was given the administration of the islands on behalf of the League of Nations, as a Class C mandate. Japan was satisfied with this agreement, although as mandated territories it could not fortify them.
Racial equality clause:
Japan had proposed the inclusion of a racial equality clause during the negotiations on the establishment of the League of Nations. This was prompted by a mixture of continued resentment of the old ‘unequal treaties’ and public opinion in Japan that opposed recent immigration restrictions imposed by the US and Australia.
- The Japanese diplomat Makino Nobuaki gave a speech in which he highlighted how the war had brought men of different races together, fighting side by side, which had created a common bond of sympathy and gratitude that had never had before been experienced.
- But the inclusion of a racial equality clause in the covenant of the League did not gain international support. Indeed, the British Empire, the US, Portugal, Belgium and Romania did not register a vote. Japan had not fully appreciated the ramification of such a clause on the western colonial dominance over non-white peoples.
- Japan wanted to be perceived as equals to the western powers but the failure to get the clause included proved humiliating.
- Japanese immigrants that wanted to emigrate to the US and Australia faced limitations which were seen as prejudiced.
- US president Woodrwo Wilson supported the clause repudiating racial prejudice but he faced opposition in America to the idea and was forced to reject Japan’s proposal. Wilson needed the votes of segregationist southern Democrats in order to get ratification from the Senate for the Settlement. Wilson, in an attempt to placate the delegation, promised to support Japanese claims to former German possessions in China.
- The Prime Minister of Australia, W.M Hughes wanted to pursue a ‘White Australia’ policy, and argued against the clause.
- British Prime minister Lloyd George also rejected the clause due to its potential impact in Britain’s colonies.
In the end, Japan had achieved a degree of success in achieving its territorial aims, and gaining a permanent seat on the Council and full representation in the League’s secretariat and committees. However, the fact that the League of Nations’ covenant did not include a clause denouncing racial prejudice was deeply resented by Japan.
What foreign policies did Japan pursue in the 1920s?
The Paris Peace conference had not resolved key issues and tensions in the Far East. The US continued to be concerned about Japan’s influence in China and wanted to ensure that all nations could trade equally in the region. The US was also aware that should it engage in a conflict with Japan, under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain may be called on to support its Asian ally. However, Britain was also concerned about Japan’s growing influence in China as a potential threat to its own position and was not comminited to renewing the treaty. It was also particularly alarmed at the potential of being drawn into a conflict between the US and Japan. The Japanese delegation had two key aims: to sign a naval agreement with Britain and the US and to gain official recognition of its ‘special interests’ in Manchuria and Mongolia. In addition, the Japanese wanted acknowledgement of its control of Siberia and Tsingtao.
The US invited representatives of eight powers to a conference in Washington. The US, China, Japan, France, Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Portugal were invited. Japan was also worried by increasing presence of US fleets in the Pacific.
Three key agreements were subsequently signed during the Washington Conference:
Four-Power Treaty: This ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The USA, Britain, France and Japan were to confer if there was a crisis in the Pacific.
Five-Power Naval Treaty: This limited the tonnage of the US, British, Japanese, French and Italian Navies.
Nine-Power Treaty: Japan, the USA, Britain, France, Italy, China, Portugal, Belgium and the Netherlands were to respect China’s integrity and independence and abide by “open door” principles.
How did Events in China foster Japanese expansionism?
Instability in China was significant in Japan’s move towards a more expansionist foreign policy. From 1927, China was in the throes of a civil war between the Nationalists (GMD) and the Communists (CCP).
Manchuria:
- Before the 1920s, China had been disunited with no strong government – dominated by the warlords; this had allowed Japan to establish a foothold in Manchuria. However, in the 1920s the Nationalist Party in China, the Guomindang (GMD), led by Jiang Jieshi, began a campaign of national unification. This included demands to end the unequal treaties that China had signed with great powers, including Japan.
- With the new communist party, the CCP, Jiang launched a Northern expedition to consolidate government control and destroy the power of the warlords. This was viewed with concern by the Japanese Government. The Japanese had backed the warlord in Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin. However, Zhang had become very powerful and was expanding outside of Manchuria which made him a target for Jiang. If Jiang defeated Zhang this could stop Japan’s special interests in Manchuria
- The Japanese government intended to get Zhang to retreat to Manchuria so that Jiang would leave him alone and Japan could remain in Manchuria. However, the army decided to assassinate Zhang and also to force Jiang’s Northern expedition to halt at Jinan.
- When Japan’s Prime Minister Tanaka tried to enforce discipline in the army on the orders of the Emperor, the General Staff refused to act. Tanaka was forced to resign in 1929 thus highlighting that the army could ignore the government with impunity. (this set a precedent that the army shall exploit later on *Nanjing*).
- Jiang expelled all communist Chinese Civil War:
- In 1926 the first united front launched the ‘Northern Expedition’ to crush the warlords of central and northern China. This was a great success; by 1927, the GMD and the Communists had captured Hangzhou, Shanghai, and Nanjing. The first united front took Beijing in 1928; the GMD announced that it was the legitimate government of China and the new capital and seat of government would be Nanjing.
- Even though it had been successful in the Northern Expedition, the alliance between the GMD and CCP did not last. The differences in ideology between the two parties now came to the fore as the defeat of the warlords meant China could be unified. Jiang had been concerned that the success of the Northern Expedition had been not only due to the promotion of Nationalist aims, it was also due to the communist promise of land to the peasants which had given the United front local peasant support.
- s from the GMD. Then, in April 1927 he launched ‘White Terror’ in Shanghai. Jiang, using informants from the underworld of triads and gangsters, killed 5,000 communists. The GMD was ordered to carry out similar attacks in other cities, in what became known as the ‘purification movement’. Estimates suggest around a quarter of a million people were killed. By the end of 1927 the CCP was almost destroyed.
- The CCP decided that its only chance of survival was to flee to the mountains of Jiangxi. THe GMD pursued them and was determined to wipe the CCP out. The first phase of the civil war had begun. Jiang then launched ‘Five Encirclement Campaigns’ in an attempt to destroy the Jiangxi Soviet and the CCP. The first three campaigns were launched between December 1930 and September 1931. The CCP ‘Red Army’ under Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai faced increasingly strong GMD forces, first 100,000, then 200,000, and finally 300,000 men. However, by using the strategies of ‘guerilla warfare’. The CCP were able to survive. Using these same strategies, the CCP’s Zhe De was able to again repel the fourth campaign in March 1933.
- In October 1933, Jiang launched a fifth and final campaign against the CCP. Jiang had taken German advice and this time amassed a huge force of 800,000 men. His troops also had air cover. The CCP’s greater mobility and local air support was nullified and in desperation it attempted to fight the GMD conventionally.
- Mao Zedong argued that CPP’s only chance of survival was to break through the GMD’s lines and set up a new remote base from which to recover and rebuild. On 19 October CCP forces managed to break through and began what was to be one of the most remarkable ‘escapes’ in history. In what was to become known as the ‘Long March’, the CCP embarked on a seemingly impossible 9600 kilometer trek to Shaanxi across some of the most inhospitable territory in China.
- It took 368 days and it led to the death of more than 90 percent of the initial 90,000 communists that had broken through the encirclement at Jiangxi.
The first phase of the civil war meant that Jiang focused on attempting to destroy the Chinese communists rather than resist Japanese expansion which encouraged the Japanese to take advantage of the situation.
It was not until the end of 1936 that a Second United Front was formed, which paused the Chinese civil war. This alliance between the GMD and CCP aimed to resist Japanese Expansion and aggression in China.
How important were the economic factors in motivating Japanese expansion in the 1930s?
Well well well
Japan relied almost entirely upon foreign trade thus the impact of the collapse of the world markets was devastating. Japanese farmers, peasants and industrial laborers were all put out of work. A lot of these masses resented the Zaibatsu (Big Japanese Corporations), since they crushed most small industries by 1925. Japan had always looked up to Germany as they thought they were the greatest European Nation, thus when Germany turned away from Democracy Japan felt like they could follow in their footsteps. This was all happening while Military service in Manchuria was still happening, this confirmed the radical views of army officers who saw the conquest of Asia’s resources and markets as a remedy for the chaos caused by the Depression.
In this climate of economic despair and political decline, the military emerged as a seemingly shining and pure example of the true spirit of the nation. Aided in part by decades of indoctrination, the military found its most fervent support in the down-trodden rural areas. For many rural youths, military service was their escape from poverty and degradation. Military leaders and organizations such as the Imperial Reservists’ Association promoted the idea that the ‘soldiers were the arms and legs of the empire..’ and better than civilians. It stated that young peasant men struggling to survive ‘consider it to be the greatest honor attainable once they enter the army to become a private superior class’.
What role did domestic political issues play in Japanese expansionist policies?
The emperor Hirhito was the country’s leader, however actual power was divided among his advisers and the military. The popular actions of the military in Manchuria, who were seen as ‘heroes’ in Japan, undermined the government at home which was divided on what to do. By the end of 1931 the Minseito party government of Wakatsuki had resigned.
The military now increased its influence over the government; many military officers held legislative and executive power and formed an independent body that was answerable only to the emperor. However there were also divisions within the military itself which further destabilized the political situation within Japan.
These two groups were the Koda-ha or Imperial way faction and the Tosei-ha or Control faction; their different views are summarized below..
Both were imperialist and both wanted Japanese expansion; however the Koda-ha was generally the more radical of the two. Historian Richard Story writes that Kodo ‘.. may be summed up, rather inadequately perhaps as the ideal of perfect loyalty and self-surrender to the Emperor. It was an ideal embracing the belief that if all political and economic power were placed in the Emperor’s hands every domestic and foreign difficulty would be overcome’.
Tosei-ha was equally determined to seize control of national policy – but was more prepared to cooperate with the great business houses and their affiliated political parties in the Diet. ‘The leaders of the Tosei-ha had a genuine horror of the radical ideas cherished by many of the junior officers… broadly speaking the Toesi-ha was more conservative and cautious than the Kodo-ha’.
As part of this internal contest for power, three major assassination plots destabilized the government between 1932 and 1936.
Wakatsuki’s successor as Prime Minister, Inukai (leader of the Seiyukai) was assassinated in May 1932 by ultra-nationalists; this was a grave blow to the political parties. Politics was increasingly shaped by nationalist-militarist sentiments; in January 1933, army minister Sadao Araki Stated:
The spirit of the Japanese nation is , by its nature, a thing that must be propagated over the seven seas and extended over the five continents. ANything that may hinder it must be abolished, even by force.
There was then a power struggle between two army factions. In 1936 the Koda-ha faction staged a coup in Tokyo. Martial law was declared and the coup defeated. However it resulted in a strengthening of army control – now under the Tosei-ha Faction.
The new Prime Minister Hirota Koki was weak and made compromises with the Military, including agreeing to pursue a strong foreign policy. In May 1936, he agreed that the ministers for the army and navy had to be serving officers. He later agreed to a seven-point programme from the army, which basically handed control of the government to the military. The Sino-Japanese War effectively ended military control over the government.
In 1940 the imperial rule assistance association replaced the political parties. Shortly before Pearl Harbor, in October 1941, the prime minister prince Konoe resigned and was replaced by General Tojo.
What was the impact of nationalism and militarism on Japan’s foreign policy in the 1930s?
With the failure of the politicians within Japan to stand up to the Kwantung Army, and indeed the popularity of its actions within Japan, the conquest of Manchuria effectively became Japanese policy. Once Manchuria was conquered it was declared to be the independent state of Manchuko under the last emperor of China PuYi. The military went beyond Manchuria however and advanced into Jehol. In May 1933 the ‘Tanggu truce’ was signed between the Kwantung Army and Chinese nationalsit commanders. This recognised the status quo and in addition China had to recognise a demilitarized zone between Beijing and the Great Wall. (China’s ability to resist was crippled by civil war; indeed Jiang responded to japanese aggression with an attack on Mao’s communists in 1934.)
There was thus steady pressure by Japan to increase its power and influence in Northern China even before 1937. By this time the Kwantung Army had grown from 10,000 in 1931 to 164,000 in 1935.
In 1937 another incident took place between Japanese and Chinese forces – the Marco Polo Bridge incident. Historians now believe that this was not engineered by the Japanese Army in the same way as the Mukden Incident had been. However, once again, although Prince Konoye attempted to contain the army, the government was powerless to stop the actions of the army and to prevent a full scale war developing between China and Japan. Indeed, given the strength of support for the Army’s actions, it became unpatriotic to even speak of peace.
Manchurian Incident:
- Manchuria was over four times the size of Japan, had low population and abundance of natural resources
- 18 September 1931 – a bomb exploded on the south Manchurian Railyway (SMR) outside the leading city of Manchuria, Mukden. It was a minor incident – it did not even prevent trains from passing
- The Kwantung army claimed that the Chinese blew up the railway – This explosion created an excuse for the Japanese to attack Manchuria and occupy it.
- Prime Minister Wakatsuki’s government was trying to regain control and stop Kwantung’s expansion into China, but Kwantung army did not follow orders from Tokyo, and expanded further.
Why did Japan Invade Manchuria?
- Manchuria was China’s industrial center
- Japan’s leaders were concerned about the chaos in China and sought to ensure their investment
What were the Results of the Manchurian Crisis?
- Results for International Relations:
- 1930s relationships with USA and UK went downhill – they condemned Japanese actions in Manchuria which eventually led to Japan leaving the League
- A historian called Kenneth Pyle said that the Manchurian crisis was a turning point for Japan. It led to Japanese Isolation since they abandoned the Washington Treaty System. Japan perceived the West as holding back the legitimate needs of Japan for racist reasons
Results for Manchuria and China:
- By 1932 Japan completely controlled Manchuria and called it the new state of Manchuko
- In 1932 conflict broke out between Japan and China. Japan bombed Shanghai which caused Chinese nationalism to uprise even more and it intensified Chinese outrage.
- By 1933 Japan controlled territory totalling more than France, Germany, Italy and Austria combined in Manchuria
Results for the Nationalist Party in China:
- China called the League of Nations. They sent Lord Lytton to investigate. Took him over a year to publish the Lytton report.
- Jieshi’s forces were ordered not to resist the invasion since they knew that the Japanese had superior weapons
- Chinese people boycotted Japanese goods but Japanese kept on going
- Treaty of Tanguu – China accepted their defeat. Japan retained control of Manchuria. Jiang thought that this would buy time. Selling space to buy time was his motto So he could focus on the communists.
Results for the Japanese Government:
- Japan benefited economically from the occupation. They had to increase tax since the cost of sending troops was expensive
- The Japanese government tried to gain control of the military but it was next to impossible due to the huge public support for the Kwantung Army
Hirota Koki 1936-37 – became PM after the plot
- He signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Hitler. Japanese became “Honorary Aryans”
- General Tojo became chief of staff of Kwantung Army – and within six weeks of taking Konoyes power, he ordered the invasion of China.
The Second Sino Japanese War, 1937
- July 7 1937, a full-scale war broke out between China and Japan
- It started at the Marco Polo Bridge when a Japanese soldier went missing during a patrol and the Japanese Army demanded to search the Chinese Section. When the Chinese refused, both sides opened fire
- There is little evidence showing that it was deliberately set up by the Japanese
- Reinforcements were sent to China from Korea.
- Japan expected the war to end quickly but it dragged on for years; The war used up nearly all of Japan’s resources.
- The Japanese forces were brutal and terrorized the Chinese population – this forced people to flee inland; potentially the largest exodus in history
- Chinese nationalist government moved the capital from Beijing to Nanjing, but abandoned it as the Japanese Advanced.
- Nanjing fell to Japanese on Dec. 13th 1937, what followed were terrible atrocities of civilians, which became known as Rape of Nanjing.
Results of the war for the Japanese:
- Japanese government hoped that China would quickly capitulate – This undermined the extent of Chinese nationalism and the outrage caused the Rape of Nanjing
- Chinese refused to negotiate terms of peace, so Japan had to invade further into the interior of the country.
Rape of Nanjing
There followed in Nanjing a period of terror and destruction that must rank among the worst in history of modern warfare. For almost seven weeks the Japanese troops, who first entered the city on December 13th unleashed on the defeated Chinese troops and helpless Chinese civilian population a storm of violence and cruelty that has a few parallels. The female rape victims, many at whom died after repeated assaults, were estimated by foreign observers at 30,000; the fugitive soldiers killed were estimated at 30,000; murdered civilians at 12,000. Robbery, wanton destruction and arson left much of the city in ruins.
Events of 1940-41
- September 1940 – Japanese Foreign Minister signed the Tripartite Axis Pact. Allowed Germany and Italy to dominate Europe and leave Japan to dominate East Asia.
- Japan secured its northern border with the USSR by signing the ‘Neutrality Pact’
- Victories of Nazis in Europe created great opportunities for Japan to take over colonies of Britain, France and Netherlands. Japan invaded the colonies in August 1941. USA and Britain were alarmed and immediately froze all Japanese assets and this brought foreign trade with Japan to a halt
- It kinda seems like Japan started a war with China but didn’t know how to end it – Japan was still fully engaged in war with China when it attacked Western Colonies in Nov 1941.
Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7th 1941?
- Economic Concerns
- An Economic embargo was placed on Japan, which would’ve been fatal for Japan in the long term. Japan could not sustain war with China, and its supplies were cut off.
- Negotiations between Japan and USA continued through 1941 – Washington wanted Japan to respect territorial integrity of its neighbors, and pursue its policies by peaceful means as well as continue with “open door trade policy”
- Japan couldn’t agree to all these demands
- Alternative Plans
- Japan was also slimy, whilst negotiating with the USA they made alternative plans which were agreed upon on September 4th 1941. Their Empire would prepare for war, while taking all diplomatic measures; however if their demands were not met by October 10th, they would commence hostilities against, US, GB and Netherlands
- On Nov 2nd, final imperial conference, Privy Council President Hara (advisor to the emperor) said that they cannot accept all American demands, and they can’t continue the status quo – he recognized it was inevitable that Japan must start war with the USA.
- On Dec 7th 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.
- America incurred huge losses. Roughly 90% of the mid-Pacific air and sea power was destroyed or damaged. However, Japanese had not destroyed the US aircraft carrier capability
- US government was outraged – negotiating on one end and attacking on the other was perceived as deceitful
- The attack killed 2403 and injured 1178
- Japanese Historians argue that the attack on Pearl Harbor was caused by the oil embargo
- As they attacked Pearl Harbor they also attacked Hong Kong and Singapore.
- On Dec 8th they attacked the Dutch East Indies, Philippines and Malaya.
- By mid 1942, Japan took control over Indo-China, Siam, Dutch East Indies, Malaya, Singapore, Guam and the Philippines
Perspectives – Historiography
- Right wing Historians in Japan Identify December 1941 as the starting point of the “Great East Asia War” – Japan was freeing Asia from the exploitation of Western colonialism. Japan had been forced into war with the USA of by the oil embargo. Some far right historians even think that the Rape of Nanjing was fake.
- Orthodox Historians in the USA think that the Pacific War began in 1937 after the Marco Polo Bridge incident. Japan waged the war of aggression and expansion. Pearl Harbor is the key evidence of Japan’s aggression. Japan held solely responsible for the war in the Pacific.
- Revisionist US historians argued that Japan’s actions up to 1941 were primarily aimed at purging Asia from Western corruption. Some suggest that as the USA did not act to resist Japan in China in the 1930s, it encouraged Japanese Actions.
By 1931, Japan was trying to be a key Asian player in international relations.
● After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) and World War I, Japan gained many colonies
and mandates in the Pacific.
○ This included the South Manchurian Railway, which Japan was allowed to protect
militarily using the Kwantung (Guangdong?) Army.
○ This boosted Japan’s power such that Russia nor China could dominate Japan.
● Japan was unhappy with its gains from their participation in the war.
● Japan’s relations with the West also improved after the signing of treaties such as the
Washington Naval Treaties (1921), the KelloggBriand Pact (1928) and the London
Naval Treaty (1930).
However, the Great Depression saw a collapse of the Japanese economy, which had been over reliant on exporting textiles for the last century.
- The military resented the government’s decision to cut military spending in favor of disarmament.
- Right Wing sectors of the military applied a policy of self sufficiency to guarantee raw materials and space for their population based on an expansionist policy. Manchuria was extremely attractive to Japan.
- ○ Manchuria produced half of the world’s supply of soya beans and had large supplies of coal and iron.
- ○ Invading Manchuria also meant an expansion of the Japanese market which would help to solve their economic problems.
- ○ Cheap labour was also available in China.
- Previous conflicts with the Chinese made it an even more appealing decision.
- During the Chinese Civil War (192749), many acts of hostility against foreigners and their interests occurred in China.
- This included strikes and boycotts against Japanese companies and attacks on Japanese citizens in China, as a result of Chinese nationalism, which was a source of concern for the Japanese.
Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931)
➔ On 18 September 1931, the Kwantung Army claimed that a bomb explosion near Mukden was evidence of disorder and invaded the area.
➔ There was evidence and reason to believe that the Japanese planted the bomb to cause friction with the Chinese.
➔ As a response to the incident, Japanese forces advanced into areas of Manchuria beyond the South Manchurian Railway.
➔ China, as a League of Nations member, appealed to the League for help.
➔ The League was cautious about developments in Manchuria and held meetings to try and find a solution that would be fair to both the Chinese and the Japanese.
➔ The US, though not a member of the League, was invited to send representatives to attend the talks on the situation in Manchuria.
➔ The League told the Japanese government to withdraw from Manchuria, to which they agreed; however, the army refused and it thus became clear the the Japanese government
was no longer in control of its own army.
➔ This prompted the League to assemble a Commission of Inquiry led by Lord Lytton from Britain (the Lytton Commission), and included representatives from the US, France,
Germany and Italy.
➔ The commission took 13 months to investigate the incident, interview witnesses and present its findings; meanwhile, the Japanese army continued to move across Manchuria and conquer territory, such that by March 1932, Manchuria had become a Japanese puppet state called Manchukuo, with Pu Yi, the last Chinese emperor, as ruler only by
name.
◆ The Lytton Commission produced its report in October 1932. The report concluded that China was responsible for the deterioration of relations with Japan
as its internal instability affected Japanese economic interests.
◆ It also condemned Japan’s action of aggression and recommended her withdrawal from Manchuria.
◆ Refused to recognise Manchukuo as an independent state and recommended that Manchuria adopt self governance while remaining under Chinese sovereignty.
All members of the League had approved the Lytton report by February 1933, with the exception
of Japan. Japan believed that it had sovereign right over Manchuria as it was Japan that enabled
prosperity in the region. Japan then left the League in March 1933, saying that Britain had
traditionally seized force in a similar way, ignoring the new direction in international politics.
Impact of the Manchurian Crisis (1931-1933)
1. The Manchurian Crisis and its results was a failure for the League.
● The League failed to protect China as Japan continued its fighting on Chinese soil
throughout the 1930s.
● Japanese expansion improved its economic and strategic position, as Japan gained
access to valuable natural resources. Military successes encouraged militarism.
● The failure to address Japan’s invasion of Manchuria may have encouraged
Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia (1935).
● It removed Asian representation from the international body.
● It showed the ineffectiveness of international diplomacy efforts as Japan did not
respect its agreements under the Nine Power Washington Naval Treaty (1921)
and the KelloggBriand Pact (1928