IGCSE Physics (0625) core and supplement: Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 syllabus for 2022

Assessment

All candidates take three papers.
Candidates who have studied the Core subject content, or who are expected to achieve a grade D or below, should be entered for Paper 1, Paper 3 and either Paper 5 or Paper 6. These candidates will be eligible for grades C to G.Candidates who have studied the Extended subject content (Core and Supplement), and who are expected to achieve a grade C or above, should be entered for Paper 2, Paper 4 and either Paper 5 or Paper 6. These candidates will be eligible for grades A* to G.

In this page we have complete list of IGCSE Physics 0625 syllabus 2022 for your ready reference.

Core candidates take:

Core candidates – Paper 1

Time: 45 minutes (40 marks)
40 four-choice multiple-choice questions Questions will be based on the Core subject content
No marks deducted from incorrect answers
NO CALCULATOR ALLOWED
Data booklet provided
30% weight
Externally assessed

Core candidates – Paper 3

Time: 75 minutes (80 marks)
Short-answer and structured questions Questions will be based on the Core subject content
No marks deducted from incorrect answers
NO CALCULATOR ALLOWED
50% weight
Externally assessed

Extended candidates take:

Extended candidates – Paper 2

Time: 45 minutes (40 marks)
40 four-choice multiple-choice questions Questions will be based on the Extended subject content (Core and Supplement)
No marks deducted from incorrect answers
NO CALCULATOR ALLOWED
30% weight
Externally assessed

Extended candidates – Paper 4

Time: 75 minutes (80 marks)
Short-answer and structured questions Questions will be based on the Extended subject content (Core and Supplement)
No marks deducted from incorrect answers
NO CALCULATOR ALLOWED
50% weight
Externally assessed

Syllabus Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 2022

1. General physics -1.1 Length and time

Core

Use and describe the use of rules and measuring cylinders to find a length or a volume.
Use and describe the use of clocks and devices, both analogue and digital, for measuring an interval of time.
Obtain an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of time by measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum)

Supplement

Understand that a micrometer screw gauge is
used to measure very small distances

1. General physics -1.2 Motion

Core

Define speed and calculate average speed from total distance/total time.
Plot and interpret a speed–time graph or a distance–time graph.
Recognise from the shape of a speed–time graph when a body is

– at rest
– moving with constant speed
– moving with changing speed

Calculate the area under a speed–time graph to
work out the distance travelled for motion with
constant acceleration.
Demonstrate understanding that acceleration
and deceleration are related to changing speed
including qualitative analysis of the gradient of a
speed–time graph.
State that the acceleration of free fall for a body
near to the Earth is constant

Supplement

Distinguish between speed and velocity.
Define and calculate acceleration using change of velocity/time taken.
Calculate speed from the gradient of a distance–time graph.
Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed–time graph.
Recognize linear motion for which the acceleration is constant.
Recognise motion for which the acceleration is not constant.
Understand deceleration as a negative acceleration.
Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with and without air resistance (including reference to
terminal velocity)

1. General physics -1.3 Mass and weight

Core

Show familiarity with the idea of the mass of a body.
State that weight is a gravitational force .
Distinguish between mass and weight .
Recall and use the equation W = mg.
Demonstrate understanding that weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance

Supplement

Demonstrate an understanding that mass is a property that ‘resists’ change in motion.
Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass

1. General physics -1.4 Density

Core

Recall and use the equation ρ = m/V.
Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly shaped solid and
make the necessary calculation .
Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the method of displacement.
Predict whether an object will float based on density data

Supplement

None

1. General physics -1.5 Forces

1.5.1 Effects of forces

Core

Recognise that a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body.
Plot and interpret extension–load graphs and describe the associated experimental procedure.
Describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body.
Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line.
Recognise that if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or continues at constant speed in a straight line.
Understand friction as the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating.
Recognise air resistance as a form of friction

Supplement

State Hooke’s Law and recall and use the expression F = kx, where k is the spring constant .
Recognise the significance of the ‘limit of proportionality’ for an extension–load graph.
Recall and use the relationship between force, mass and acceleration (including the direction), F = ma .
Describe qualitatively motion in a circular path due to a perpendicular force (F = mv² /r is not required)

1.5.2 Turning effect

Core

Describe the moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect and give everyday examples.
Understand that increasing force or distance from the pivot increases the moment of a force .
Calculate moment using the product force × perpendicular distance from the pivot .
Apply the principle of moments to the balancing of a beam about a pivot

Supplement

Apply the principle of moments to different situations

1.5.3 Conditions for equilibrium

Core

Recognise that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant turning effect, a system is in equilibrium

Supplement

Perform and describe an experiment (involving vertical forces) to show that there is no net moment on a body in equilibrium

1.5.4 Centre of mass

Core

Perform and describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina.
Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of simple objects

Supplement

None

1.5.5 Scalars and vectors

Core

None

Supplement

Understand that vectors have a magnitude and direction .
Demonstrate an understanding of the difference between scalars and vectors and give common examples.
Determine graphically the resultant of two vectors

1. General physics -1.6 Momentum

Core

None

Supplement

Understand the concepts of momentum and impulse.
Recall and use the equation momentum = mass × velocity, p = mv.
Recall and use the equation for impulse Ft = mv – mu .
Apply the principle of the conservation of momentum to solve simple problems in one dimension

1. General physics -1.7 Energy, work and power

1.7.1 Energy

Core

Identify changes in kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear and internal energy that have occurred as a result of an event or process.
Recognise that energy is transferred during events and processes, including examples of transfer by forces (mechanical working), by electrical currents (electrical working), by heating and by waves .
Apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples

Supplement

Recall and use the expressions kinetic energy = ½mv² and change in gravitational potential energy = mg∆h.
Apply the principle of conservation of energy to examples involving multiple stages .
Explain that in any event or process the energy tends to become more spread out among the objects and surroundings (dissipated)

1.7.2 Energy resources

Core

Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from: .
- chemical energy stored in fuel .
- water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in water behind hydroelectric dams .
- geothermal resources .
- nuclear fission .
- heat and light from the Sun (solar cells and panels).
- wind
Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of renewability, cost, reliability, scale and environmental impact .
Show a qualitative understanding of efficiency

Supplement

Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal .
Show an understanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun.
Recall and use the equations: efficiency = (useful energy output/energy input) × 100%
efficiency =( useful power output /power input) × 100%

1.7.3 Work

Core

Demonstrate understanding that work done = energy transferred .
Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved in the direction of the force

Supplement

Recall and use W = Fd = ∆E

1.7.4 Power

Core

Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using appropriate examples

Supplement

Recall and use the equation P = ∆E/t in simple systems

1. General physics -1.8 Pressure

Core

Recall and use the equation p = F/A .
Relate pressure to force and area, using appropriate examples .
Describe the simple mercury barometer and its use in measuring atmospheric pressure .
Relate (without calculation) the pressure beneath a liquid surface to depth and to density, using appropriate examples .
Use and describe the use of a manometer

Supplement

Recall and use the equation p = hρg

2. Thermal physics -2.1 Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

2.1.1 States of matter

Core

State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

Supplement

None

2.1.2 Molecular model

Core

Describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the arrangement, separation and motion of the molecules.
Interpret the temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules .
Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules .
Show an understanding of the random motion of particles in a suspension as evidence for the kinetic molecular model of matter .
Describe this motion (sometimes known as Brownian motion) in terms of random molecular bombardment

Supplement

Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and distances between molecules and to the motion of the molecules.
Explain pressure in terms of the change of momentum of the particles striking the walls creating a force.
Show an appreciation that massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules

2.1.3 Evaporation

Core

Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more-energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid .
Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling of the liquid

Supplement

Demonstrate an understanding of how temperature, surface area and draught over a surface influence evaporation .
Explain the cooling of a body in contact with an evaporating liquid

2.1.4 Pressure changes

Core

Describe qualitatively, in terms of molecules, the effect on the pressure of a gas of:
- a change of temperature at constant volume.
- a change of volume at constant temperature
Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling of the liquid

Supplement

Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature

2. Thermal physics -2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Core

Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases at constant pressure .
Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion

Supplement

Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of molecules, the relative order of the magnitude of the expansion of solids, liquids and gases

2.2.2 Measurement of temperature

Core

Appreciate how a physical property that varies with temperature may be used for the measurement of temperature, and state examples of such properties .
Recognise the need for and identify fixed points .
Describe and explain the structure and action of liquid-in-glass thermometers

Supplement

Demonstrate understanding of sensitivity, range and linearity .
Describe the structure of a thermocouple and show understanding of its use as a thermometer for measuring high temperatures and those that vary rapidly .
Describe and explain how the structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer relates to its sensitivity, range and linearity

2.2.3 Thermal capacity (heat capacity

Core

Relate a rise in the temperature of a body to an increase in its internal energy .
Show an understanding of what is meant by the thermal capacity of a body

Supplement

Give a simple molecular account of an increase in internal energy .
Recall and use the equation thermal capacity = mc .
Define specific heat capacity .
Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a substance .
Recall and use the equation change in energy = mc∆T

2.2.4 Melting and boiling

Core

Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature .
State the meaning of melting point and boiling point .
Describe condensation and solidification in terms
of molecules

Supplement

Distinguish between boiling and evaporation .
Use the terms latent heat of vaporisation and latent heat of fusion and give a molecular interpretation of latent heat .
Define specific latent heat .
Describe an experiment to measure specific latent heats for steam and for ice .
Recall and use the equation energy = ml

2. Thermal physics -2.3 Thermal processes

2.3.1 Conduction

Core

Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad thermal conductors

Supplement

Give a simple molecular account of conduction in solids including lattice vibration and transfer by electrons

2.3.2 Convection

Core

Recognise convection as an important method of thermal transfer in fluids .
Relate convection in fluids to density changes and describe experiments to illustrate convection

Supplement

None

2.3.3 Radiation

Core

Identify infrared radiation as part of the electromagnetic spectrum .
Recognise that thermal energy transfer by radiation does not require a medium .
Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on the emission, absorption and reflection of radiation

Supplement

Describe experiments to show the properties of good and bad emitters and good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation .
Show understanding that the amount of radiation emitted also depends on the surface temperature and surface area of a body

2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Core

Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection and radiation

Supplement

None

3 Properties of waves, including light and sound -3.1 General wave properties

Core

Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter .
Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs and by experiments using water waves .
Use the term wavefront .
Give the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude .
Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples .
Describe how waves can undergo:
- reflection at a plane surface
- refraction due to a change of speed
- diffraction through a narrow gap
Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate
reflection, refraction and diffraction

Supplement

Recall and use the equation v = f λ.
Describe how wavelength and gap size affects diffraction through a gap .
Describe how wavelength affects diffraction at an edge

3 Properties of waves, including light and sound -3.2 Light

3.2.1 Reflection of light

Core

Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror, and give its characteristics
Recall and use the law angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Supplement

Recall that the image in a plane mirror is virtual
Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection by plane mirrors

3.2.2 Refraction of light

Core

Describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light .
Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and describe the passage of light through parallel-sided transparent material .
Give the meaning of critical angle .
Describe internal and total internal reflection

Supplement

Recall and use the definition of refractive index n in terms of speed .
Recall and use the equation sin i /sin r = n .
Recall and use n = 1/sin c .
Describe and explain the action of optical fibres particularly in medicine and communications technology

3.2.3 Thin converging lens

Core

Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light
Use the terms principal focus and focal length .
Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens .
Describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/ inverted

Supplement

Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a virtual image by a single lens .
Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass .
Show understanding of the terms real image and virtual image

3.2.4 Dispersion of light

Core

• Give a qualitative account of the dispersion of light as shown by the action on light of a glass prism including the seven colours of the spectrum in their correct order

Supplement

Recall that light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic

3 Properties of waves, including light and sound -3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

Core

Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of wavelength .
State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum .
Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum including:
- radio and television communications (radio waves) .
- satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
- electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms (infrared)
- medicine and security (X-rays)
Demonstrate an awareness of safety issues
regarding the use of microwaves and X-rays

Supplement

State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 10⁸m/s and is approximately the same in air

3 Properties of waves, including light and sound -3.4 Sound

Core

Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources .
Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves .
State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20Hz to 20000Hz .
Show an understanding of the term ultrasound .
Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves .
Describe an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air .
Relate the loudness and pitch of sound waves to amplitude and frequency .
Describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo

Supplement

Describe compression and rarefaction .
State typical values of the speed of sound in gases, liquids and solids

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism

Core

Describe the forces between magnets, and between magnets and magnetic materials .
Give an account of induced magnetism .
Distinguish between magnetic and non-magnetic materials .
Describe methods of magnetisation, to include stroking with a magnet, use of direct current (d.c.) in a coil and hammering in a magnetic field .
Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet .
Describe an experiment to identify the pattern of magnetic field lines, including the direction .
Distinguish between the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel .
Distinguish between the design and use of permanent magnets and electromagnets

Supplement

Explain that magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields .
Describe methods of demagnetisation, to include hammering, heating and use of alternating current (a.c.) in a coil

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.2 Electrical quantities

4.2.1 Electric charge

Core

State that there are positive and negative charges .
State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel .
Describe simple experiments to show the production and detection of electrostatic charges .
State that charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons .
Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and give typical examples

Supplement

State that charge is measured in coulombs .
State that the direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive charge at that point .
Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force .
Describe simple field patterns, including the field around a point charge, the field around a charged conducting sphere and the field between two parallel plates (not including end effects) .
Give an account of charging by induction .
Recall and use a simple electron model to distinguish between conductors and insulators

4.2.2 Current

Core

State that current is related to the flow of charge .
Use and describe the use of an ammeter, both analogue and digital .
State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons

Supplement

Show understanding that a current is a rate of flow of charge and recall and use the equation I = Q/t .
Distinguish between the direction of flow of electrons and conventional current

4.2.3 Electromotive force

Core

State that the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an electrical source of energy is measured in volts

Supplement

Show understanding that e.m.f. is defined in terms of energy supplied by a source in driving charge round a complete circuit

4.2.4 Potential difference

Core

State that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts .
Use and describe the use of a voltmeter, both analogue and digital

Supplement

Recall that 1V is equivalent to 1J/C

4.2.5 Resistance

Core

State that resistance = p.d./ current and understand qualitatively how changes in p.d. or resistance affect current .
Recall and use the equation R = V/ I .
Describe an experiment to determine resistance using a voltmeter and an ammeter .
Relate (without calculation) the resistance of a wire to its length and to its diameter

Supplement

Sketch and explain the current–voltage characteristic of an ohmic resistor and a filament lamp .
Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and length, and the inverse proportionality between resistance and crosssectional area of a wire

4.2.6 Electrical working

Core

Understand that electric circuits transfer energy from the battery or power source to the circuit components then into the surroundings

Supplement

Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.3 Electric circuits

4.3.1 Circuit diagrams

Core

Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable), heaters, thermistors, light-dependent resistors, lamps, ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers, magnetising coils, transformers, bells, fuses and relays

Supplement

Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing diodes

4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

Core

Understand that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same .
Give the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series .
State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch .
State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself .
State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit

Supplement

Calculate the combined e.m.f. of several sources in series .
Recall and use the fact that the sum of the p.d.s across the components in a series circuit is equal to the total p.d. across the supply .
Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit .
Calculate the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel

4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

Core

Describe the action of a variable potential divider (potentiometer) .
Describe the action of thermistors and light dependent resistors and show understanding of their use as input transducers .
Describe the action of a relay and show understanding of its use in switching circuits

Supplement

Describe the action of a diode and show understanding of its use as a rectifier .
Recognise and show understanding of circuits operating as light-sensitive switches and temperature-operated alarms (to include the use of a relay)

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.4 Digital electronics

Core

None

Supplement

Explain and use the terms analogue and digital in terms of continuous variation and high/low states .
Describe the action of NOT, AND, OR, NAND and NOR gates .
Recall and use the symbols for logic gates .
Design and understand simple digital circuits combining several logic gates .
Use truth tables to describe the action of individual gates and simple combinations of gates

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.5 Dangers of electricity

Core

State the hazards of:
- damaged insulation
- overheating of cables
- damp conditions .
State that a fuse protects a circuit
Explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers and choose appropriate fuse ratings and circuit breaker settings
Explain the benefits of earthing metal cases

Supplement

4. Electricity and magnetism -4.6 Electromagnetic effects

4.6.1 Electromagnetic induction

Core

Show understanding that a conductor moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic field linking with a conductor can induce an e.m.f. in the conductor .
Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction .
State the factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.

Supplement

Show understanding that the direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the change causing it .
State and use the relative directions of force, field and induced current

4.6.2 a.c. generator

Core

Distinguish between d.c. and a.c.

Supplement

Describe and explain a rotating-coil generator and the use of slip rings .
Sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator .
Relate the position of the generator coil to the peaks and zeros of the voltage output

4.6.3 Transformer

Core

Describe the construction of a basic transformer with a soft-iron core, as used for voltage transformations .
Recall and use the equation (Vp /Vs) = (Np /Ns ) .
Understand the terms step-up and step-down .
Describe the use of the transformer in high voltage transmission of electricity .
Give the advantages of high-voltage transmission

Supplement

Describe the principle of operation of a transformer .
Recall and use the equation IpVp = IsVs (for 100% efficiency) .
Explain why power losses in cables are lower when the voltage is high

4.6.4 The magnetic effect of a current

Core

Describe the pattern of the magnetic field (including direction) due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids .
Describe applications of the magnetic effect of current, including the action of a relay

Supplement

State the qualitative variation of the strength of the magnetic field over salient parts of the pattern .
State that the direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point .
Describe the effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and direction of the current

4.6.5 Force on a current-carrying conductor

Core

Describe an experiment to show that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, including the effect of reversing: .
- the current .
- the direction of the field

Supplement

State the qualitative variation of the strength of the magnetic field over salient parts of the pattern .
State that the direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point .
Describe the effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and direction of the current

4.6.6 d.c. motor

Core

State that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect and that the effect is increased by:
- increasing the number of turns on the coil
- increasing the current
- increasing the strength of the magnetic field

Supplement

Relate this turning effect to the action of an electric motor including the action of a split-ring commutator

5 Atomic physics – 5.1 The nuclear atom

5.1.1 Atomic model

Core

Describe the structure of an atom in terms of a positive nucleus and negative electrons

Supplement

Describe how the scattering of α-particles by thin metal foils provides evidence for the nuclear atom

5.1.2 Nucleus

Core

Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons .
State the charges of protons and neutrons .
Use the term proton number Z .
Use the term nucleon number A .
Use the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation ^AX_Z.
Use and explain the term isotope

Supplement

State the meaning of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
Balance equations involving nuclide notation

5 Atomic physics – 5.2 Radioactivity

5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity

Core

Demonstrate understanding of background radiation
Describe the detection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays (β⁺ are not included: β-particles will be taken to refer to β^– )

Supplement

None

5.2.2 Characteristics of the three kinds of emission

Core

Discuss the random nature of radioactive emission
Identify α-, β- and γ-emissions by recalling
- their nature
- their relative ionising effects
- their relative penetrating abilities (β⁺ are not included, β-particles will be taken to refer to β^–)

Supplement

Describe their deflection in electric fields and in magnetic fields
Interpret their relative ionising effects
Give and explain examples of practical applications of α-, β- and γ-emissions

5.2.3 Radioative decay

Core

State the meaning of radioactive decay .
State that during α- or β-decay the nucleus changes to that of a different element

Supplement

Use equations involving nuclide notation to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus when particles are emitted

5.2.4 Half-life

Core

Use the term half-life in simple calculations, which might involve information in tables or decay curves

Supplement

Use equations involving nuclide notation to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus when particles are emitted