Question
Answer either part (a) or part (b).
Either
(a) Examine the impacts of slum clearance schemes on one or more neighbourhoods. [10]
Or
(b) To what extent do centrifugal population movements affect residential areas of cities? [10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Slum clearance is an urban renewal and redevelopment strategy aimed at transforming poor
quality, low-income neighbourhoods into areas of better quality housing and residential
services. The aim is to reduce urban stress and improve people’s quality of life. Schemes are
not always successful and may be ineffective. The clearance of slums may result in the
displacement of people, the break-up of communities and removal of informal sector
employment. The removal of slums does not remove the causes of poverty, creates stress
on already short housing stock and may create slums in other areas.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and
understanding (AO1):
• Slum clearances may affect cities in countries at different levels of economic
development. For example: squatter settlements in low-income countries, and inner-city
slums in high income countries.
• These are areas of economic and social deprivation, with low-quality housing, low
incomes, lacking basic facilities, and high crime rates.
• Schemes may involve slum clearance, or slum improvement (upgrading of existing
areas).
• The effectiveness of slum clearance in the management of urban stresses
• These may have significant positive and negative impacts on local neighbourhoods,
communities and environments.
• Slum clearance should be accompanied by provision of alternative housing; may put
further stress on housing; displaced neighbourhoods; new housing areas may be
unaffordable.
• The power and role of different stakeholders, including city planners, developers and
local communities, with differing viewpoints and perspectives.
Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical
evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the impacts of schemes in
different places, and the power of different stakeholders (e.g. residents, planners,
developers), in the management of impacts. Another approach might be to examine the
impact of slum clearance schemes from the perspective of different stakeholders.
For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of the impact of slum clearance on
at least one neighbourhood.
For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account, which includes:
• either an evidenced explanation of the positive and negative impacts of slum clearance
on one or more neighbourhoods
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts
and/or perspectives.
For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Centrifugal population movements include both suburbanization and counter-urbanization.
The outward movement of population, caused by a variety of social, economic, and political
processes, and facilitated by developments in transport and communications. Centrifugal
population movement has had a significant impact on residential areas, including suburban
sprawl, growth of urban commuter villages in the rural-urban fringe, and decline of population
and urban decay in inner city areas. Centripetal population movement may also be
considered, to respond to the “to what extent” part of the question.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):
• Centrifugal movements include suburbanization and counter-urbanization.
• Population movements may be caused by a variety of economic and demographic
processes, facilitated by changes in transport, communications, and increasing car
ownership.
• Planners and developers also have an influence on residential areas.
• Growth of residential areas, suburban housing estates and commuter villages.
• Urban sprawl, accompanied by industry, large retail and leisure facilities.
• Social and economic characteristics of the population.
• Out-migration, decline of housing, increased unemployment and social deprivation in
inner-city areas.
• Removal of green spaces and destruction of wildlife habitats in surrounding countryside.
• Centripetal movements include gentrification and regeneration of city centres.
Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical
evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the processes and effects of
centrifugal population movement on residential areas in different places. Another approach
might be to examine the power of different stakeholders, such as planners, developers and
environmental groups.
For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining at least one effect of centrifugal
population movement on residential areas.
For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account, which includes:
• either an evidenced explanation of the extent to which centrifugal population movement
affects different residential areas
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts
and/or perspectives.
For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.
Award maximum of 5-6 marks if a response uses a centripetal movement but shows
understanding of the effect of population movement on residential areas.
Question
Describe what is meant by a “sustainable city”.[4]
Explain three ways in which human activities can modify the microclimate of an urban area.[3×2]
Examine reasons why cities in some parts of the world have higher rates of population growth than others.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Answers could include the following elements:
A city that is designed to protect quality of life for its future generations [1 mark].
Award 3 marks for three of the following elements:
- city designed to minimize impact on environment
- inputs of energy, water, and other resources are minimized
- outputs (waste, air and water pollution) are minimized (possibly by recycling)
- effective transport infrastructure minimizes outputs
- smallest possible urban ecological footprint
- any other valid suggestion.
Microclimate can describe temperatures, wind speed, humidity, air quality and local rainfall regimes.
Answers could include the following:
- increased temperatures (including urban heat island effect) because of reduced albedo, direct heating by buildings, air conditioning etc.
- changes in wind speed and air flow because of buildings and street patterns
- changes in rainfall because of higher temperatures; increased amount of particulate pollution provide rainfall nuclei; greater convectional updraughts
- greater levels of air pollution (photochemical smog, particulates, NOX etc.)
- greater number of sources, for example, exhausts.
Award 1 mark for each basic modification explained and 1 mark for any extension or good example.
Maximum 3 marks if only one aspect of microclimate (for example, urban heat island) is explained but with three causes given.
Good answers are likely to focus on migration and natural increase also. Variations in the relative strength of urban pull factors and rural push factors should be discussed. Economic, cultural and political factors may feature in the discussion as influences of both migration and rates of increase.
Counter-urbanization and low birth rates are a cause of slower growth or even a decline in population in many cities in MEDCs.
Responses that focus simply on urban growth in one area should be limited to band D. Expect the inclusion of both migration and natural increase to access bands E/F.
While examples are not a specific requirement of the question, those answers that provide supporting examples are likely to access the higher markbands.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
Sustainability seems to be well understood and most candidates gave a good response – many referred to the Roger’s model and many provided annotated diagrams to illustrate it.
Surprisingly, overall, this was done quite poorly. Many referred to the greenhouse effect and there was considerable confusion over the causes of the urban heat island.
Some answers were excellent but many took an inappropriate scale (national population growth rather than urban) or did not consider natural increase as well as migration. The use of supporting examples made it easier for candidates to access higher markbands.
Question
The map and graphs show employment characteristics for the populations of two contrasting areas of Dublin, Ireland. Area A is a new residential area on the edge of Dublin whereas Area B is an inner city location.
(i) Identify one group of working people that have been classified as “not formally employed”.
(ii) Distinguish between the main employment characteristics for the two areas shown.[4]
Explain two population movements taking place within large cities.[6]
“Most large cities suffer from a serious problem of urban poverty for which there is no solution.” Discuss this statement.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
(i) People in the informal sector. Also accept charity work, carers, criminal activity or specified groups of informal workers eg, car windscreen cleaners.
(ii) Award [1 mark] for any of the following, up to [3 marks]:
- area A has most people in “skilled manual”/category 4
- area B has most people in “not formally employed”/category 7
- area B has an even spread across groups 3–6/different types of manual work
- area A has a high category 2–3/lower professional groups
- credit other valid significant points, or attempts at quantification.
For each population movement, award [1 mark] for the identification of a population movement and [2 marks] for reasons explaining why the movement occurs. These can be outlined push or pull factors, but do not double-credit “mirrored” reasons (eg, less space in inner city, more space out of town).
A range of answers are possible, for example:
- the movement of families with children from the inner city to the suburbs [1 mark]
- due to push factors such as pollution from traffic [1 mark]
- the pull factors such as better education opportunities [1 mark].
There are many problems related to poverty that candidates can use. These include deprivation, overcrowding, poor quality housing, crime and inequality. Candidates may agree or disagree with the statement. Likely contrasts will be made between high-income countries and low-income countries.
Urban poverty and deprivation can take many forms – unemployment and underemployment, poor diet, lack of clean water. Solutions may be very costly, and there might not be the political will to invest resources on the most deprived. Overcrowding can lead to pressure on resources (water, sanitation) and it may help spread disease. Solutions include new housing developments, site and service schemes, provision of piped water and improved sanitation.
Solutions could include informal/shanty towns, new towns, new cities, affordable housing, rural development. The fundamental problem is that as long as cities are attractive places for people to live and work, they will continue to attract more people, thereby making it difficult to solve the problem of poverty.
Credit answers that argue that urban poverty can be resolved (Curitiba, economic growth in China, India pulling people out of poverty).
At band D, responses are likely to describe either some urban problems or one or more possible solutions. Evidence may be generalized or lacking.
At band E, expect either a greater range of problems and/or solutions to be covered or some explicit discussion of the truth of the statement (eg, recognizes the urban context determines the severity of the problem and/or the solutions sought).
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
This question posed few problems, although weaker responses tended to name “Group 7” rather than a specific group of people. Most candidates were able to successfully distinguish between the employment characteristics for the two areas, using quantification.
This was a popular question with some very good responses and effective use of case studies. Many described problems of poverty in cities in both high-income and low-income countries, put forward possible solutions and discussed their effectiveness. Weaker responses were merely generalized descriptions of urban problems.
This was a popular question with some very good responses and effective use of case studies. Many described problems of poverty in cities in both high-income and low-income countries, put forward possible solutions and discussed their effectiveness. Weaker responses were merely generalized descriptions of urban problems.
Question
The graph shows population change in Detroit, a city in the USA.
Describe the changes in the size of Detroit’s population between 1900 and 2015.[4]
Using examples, explain two push factors and one pull factor that help explain counter-urbanization movements.[6]
Using examples, discuss the varied effects of human activity on urban microclimates.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Award [1] for each of four valid statements, for example:
- Detroit’s population increases between 1900 and 1950
- the most rapid growth was between 1910 and 1930
- the city’s population has declined from its peak in 1950 until 2015
- in 2015 its population was the lowest it has been since about 1915.
There may be other valid descriptive statements.
Maximum [3] if no quantification (must quote some data from y axis).
Counter-urbanization is the movement of population away from inner urban areas to a new town, a new estate, a commuter town or a village on the edge of just beyond the city limits/rural–urban fringe.
Counter-urbanization is influenced by many push and pull factors.
Award [1] for the identification of a factor affecting counter-urbanization, and a further [1] for development, up to a maximum of [5], reserving the final [1] for an example.
Push factors include:
- the high price of urban living
- congestion in urban areas
- pollution
- lack of services
- declining employment opportunities
- social problems such as high crime rates.
Pull factors include:
- the perceived improved community relations
- better schools
- bigger houses
- cleaner environments
- space.
Accept other valid suggestions eg improvements in transport, improved ICT links enabling teleworking.
For example: High crime rates in Johannesburg [1] have led to many people leaving the inner urban areas for smaller areas/relocating [1].
For example: Perceived high quality selective educational establishments in Tonbridge, Kent [1] have resulted in increased population in-migration [1].
Do not credit both mirror statements eg poor housing/good housing used as two factors.
The effects of human activity on urban climates is varied eg urban heat islands, increased cloud cover and incidence of smog, increased instability, reduced snow cover, lower air pressure, increased tunnelling of winds, ie “the canyon effect”, decreased relative humidity and so on.
The impacts depend on a number of factors: size of city, the function of the city (industrial versus post-industrial), land-use in the city (open spaces versus industrial/retail zones), population density, vehicle density.
In some cities, negative impacts of earlier urban development have been reversed by recent developments eg the Olympic Park in London, slum clearance in Barcelona to create La Rambla or the reintroduction of the Cheong-Gye-Cheon river in Seoul. These have led to reduced temperatures, reduced wind speeds, and increased humidity. Sustainable transport strategies may reduce the number
of vehicles in city centres.
Good candidates may examine the scale of the city, improvements to a city’s climate and the nature of the settlement. Good candidates should be able to explain specific aspects of the microclimate and relate it to named human activities (building, transport systems, power generation).
Responses at band D are likely to describe a limited range (at least two) of effects of human activity on microclimates.
At band E candidates will either discuss the effects in greater range/depth/types or provide some discussion of what “varied” might mean (eg negative/positive, planned/unplanned, varied locations).
At band F expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
No problems.
Most understood the term counter-urbanization. Factors were correctly identified, but often not developed. Mirror points were not uncommon.
There were some good responses, focusing on heat islands, pollution and winds. Weaker candidates gave generalized accounts of pollution. There was a lot of misunderstanding of the role of pollution and CO2 emission in the urban heat island effect. Few explicitly discussed the question.