Question
Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.[10]
“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:
- changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
- fashion (linked with global media corporations)
- music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).
The key factors that can be explained include:
- the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
- the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
- the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).
Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).
For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.
At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.
By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.
Possible themes include:
- MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
- cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
- the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
- migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
- government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
- transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
- government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
- military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].
Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).
For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Examiners report
The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.
This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.
Question
Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).[10]
“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.
Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:
- cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
- low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
- local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).
These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.
Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).
For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.
At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.
By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).
Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).
Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:
- migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
- homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
- tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
- cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
- global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
- nationalist movements [Guide 6]
- isolationism [Guide 7].
Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.
For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Examiners report
Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.
The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.
Question
Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.[10]
Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.
National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.
Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).
For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).
For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).
For band E, expect both.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.
Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).
Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:
- anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
- migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
- the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
- opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
- opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
- environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
- cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
- resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
- deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
- food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].
Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).
For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.[10]
To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as “local” places within a global context.
Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).
There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.
Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.
For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.
At band E, expect all of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).
Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).
Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:
- growth of core regions [Guide 1]
- growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
- ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
- agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
- environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
- food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
- globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
- de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
- some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].
Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.[10]
Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.
The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.
However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:
- the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
- largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
- IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
- free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.
Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.
For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.
The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).
Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:
- active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
- shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
- many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
- key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
- growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
- roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
- global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
- poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].
Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.[10]
“International migration is the main cause of local opposition to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.
A cultural trait is an aspect of culture (way of life/social norms/structure of feeling/habitus). For example, language, diet, clothing, custom, religion. Allow a broad interpretation, such as the adoption of a branded commodity as part of “everyday life” eg McDonaldization / spread of Big Mac.
• Adoption of a trait can take the form of cultural imperialism (where one culture imposes its culture on another eg spread of English and Christianity under British Empire). Some commodities/brands are not sensitive to local conditions and are rolled out in a homogenous way across territories eg Lego.
• Adaptation involves the globalization of culture/commodities, resulting in a hybrid or fusion of local and global. There are many different variants of spoken French or Spanish around the world; localized expressions of the major faiths are found in each continent; food and music fusions are abundant.
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to distinguish the terms well, either through use of language or by drawing on more explicit contrasts, perhaps linked explicitly to different kinds of TNC (entertainment or oil, for instance). Another approach might be to comment on how the line may sometimes be blurred between adoption and adaptation, thereby challenging the assumption that it is easy to distinguish. While four billion people have adopted some form of English, on closer inspection there are distinct local adaptions such as “Singlish”. While some may see diversity in adapted McDonald’s menus around the world, skeptics might argue this adaptation is superficial and at heart a uniform product has been adopted.
Do not over-credit explanation of why globalization occurs / is necessary, as this is not asked for. Also, do not credit discussion of the costs and benefits of these processes of change.
Adaptation (globalization) is an aspect of the adoption process (globalization). This means that weaker candidates may have difficulty separating the two. Responses should be marked positively wherever possible if they are well structured and make good use of examples and terminology.
For band C (4–6 marks), expect either some correct but weakly evidenced outlining of both adaptation and adoption or one of these processes outlined well.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either a wider range of examples (perhaps linked to different cultural traits, contexts or sectors of commerce/industry)
• or the distinction between adoption and adaptation (perhaps recognizing the overlap between the two terms).
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on local opposition movements. The question suggests that multiple flows/interactions should be addressed, not just migration. International migration may be legal (EU), sometimes illegal (US–Mexico; North Africa–EU); it may involve skilled elites (sports/creative/skilled/professional) or the semi-skilled and low-skilled.
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• labour flows [Guide 3]
• opposition to IMF / SAPs [Guide 3]
• reaction against cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism [Guide 6]
• EU migration issues [Guide 6]
• food miles and local sourcing movements [Guide 7].
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which discusses different local contexts: concerns with migration in the EU/US may not be shared equally in some LDCs, for instance. Instead, the “imperialistic” actions of TNCs/IMF/US may be of far greater concern eg opposition movements in Niger delta. Middle Eastern contexts could be discussed, including militant/jihadist campaigns against the West (ISIS/IS). Good answers may conclude that the veracity of the statement depends on the local context as much as it does on what aspect of globalization is under discussion.
Some responses may discuss the statement by counter-arguing that migration is supported rather than opposed in some contexts. This may be credited. However, responses which deal only with migration are unlikely to progress beyond band C because they have not synthesized a range of themes from the geography guide. For band D, there should also be some mention of one alternative cause of opposition.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Examiners report
Answers to this popular question were overwhelmingly coherent and correct. Adoption was viewed as a universalizing process bringing cultural homogeneity to places. In contrast, adaptation combines the general (a global commodity or cultural trait) with the particular (local preferences and beliefs). The result is a hybrid, or localized, culture. McDonald’s was a very popular illustrative choice (it is perhaps a pity that teachers and candidates do not seek out more interesting examples as there is no shortage). Shortcomings in some candidates’ responses included:
• An overly narrow focus on a single example of international migration (an account of Mexican culture being adopted and adapted in the US falls short, strictly speaking, of providing an analysis of global cultural traits).
• Some confusion or insecurity over the meaning of ‘adaptation’ (some took it to mean forced as opposed to voluntary adoption, for instance)
Many candidates wrote extensively about the contemporary reaction against migration in the USA (Donald Trump’s proposed wall across the Mexican border) and throughout Europe (including the rise of right-wing politics in the UK, France and Austria). Some answers made excellent use of contemporary reporting of this topic, framed by the Syrian refugee crisis. Unfortunately, many candidates failed to broaden the remit of their answer to look beyond the migration debate. The question was phrased in a way which required candidates ideally to explore other reasons for resistance to global interactions, as opposed to varying perspectives on the merits or costs of migration. Responses reaching band D were expected to at least touch on some of the wider sovereignty issues which provoke EU or US citizens to voice their opposition to the EU or NAFTA. A minority of excellent essays explored contemporary reactions against migration in some locales and additionally synthesized a range of case studies dealing with such themes as international trade, environmental degradation, resource nationalism, cultural imperialism and workers’ rights.
Question
Using examples, analyse how economic and political factors affect global migration flows.[10]
“The interdependence of countries has been greatly exaggerated.” Using examples, discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Economic push or pull factors may be discussed. Political factors might be conceptualized either as push and/or pull factors (such as persecution or conflict and liberal/tolerant governments) or alternatively as barriers to movement (eg, the EU allows migration between members while attempting to limit migration from northern Africa).
A good analysis may analyse global patterns instead of simply explaining a series of international case studies. Another approach may be to provide a structured analysis of flows being increased or decreased. Good answers might even analyse the timescale of movements, or the possibility of reversal (such as during the global financial crisis 2008–09, or in response to conflict).
Extremely well-detailed analyses of selected international movements (eg USA–Mexico) are unlikely to access band E (9-10 marks) without some broader global analysis.
For band C (4-6 marks), one weakly-evidenced economic and one weakly-evidenced political factor should be outlined, and a basic link established with migration flow(s) between some countries.
For band D (7-8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
- either both types of factor, with more detailed national exemplification
- or how these factors affect the characteristics of migration flows at a global scale.
For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.
[10 marks]
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus should be on interdependence (the core idea underpinning the concept of globalization, ie that countries are mutually dependent on one another). The dependency could be economic or political in nature. Creditable social/cultural/environmental interpretations may also be discussed (perhaps linked with a concept of “global sustainability”). The phrasing of the question also requires that there should be some evaluation of whether exemplified countries have retained a degree of independence/autonomy in some, or all, ways. Possible themes from the geography guide include:
- economic interdependency due to outsourcing and FDI relationships [Guide 3]
- financial flows, remittances and migration (for instance, western Europe depends on the labour of eastern Europe which, in turn, relies on remittances as a proportion of GDP [Guide 3]
- multi-governmental organizations and the economic and political interdependency they foster [Guide 6]
- how diaspora populations can help foster bilateral relationships between country of origin and countries of destination [Guide 5].
Themes in agreement of ‘over-exaggeration’ include:
- the possibility of isolationism, protectionism and resource nationalism [Guide 6]
- retreat from interdependent relations as a result of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6]
- local sourcing movements [Guide 7]
- shrinking world barriers eg ‘Great Firewall of China’ [Guide 2].
Good answers may question the context, because some countries with highly developed economies may have developed more complex financial networks and outsourcing arrangements; or may belong to more MGOs. Equally some countries are interdependent in some respects (financially) but perhaps not others (China’s relative cultural isolation). Good answers may also distinguish between dependency and connectivity, or may question whether the state of interdependency is unequal/asymmetric (one partner may be far more dependent on others than vice versa).
For band C (5-8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9-12 marks), expect
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.
[15 marks]
Question
Explain how the actions of world trading organizations and financial institutions (such as the International Monetary Fund) influence global financial flows.[10]
Discuss the economic and environmental consequences of more people choosing to buy locally produced food and goods rather than globalized products.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 Indicative content
Credit reference to the IMF, World Bank, WTO, New Development Bank (NDB), China Development Bank. Also credit trading blocs/MGOs such as ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA and EU/EEA.
Financial flows may include:
- loans (with structural adjustment programmes)
- commodities (with the WTO encouraging free trade)
- remittances (linked with EU rules; or development policies of the World Bank)
- movements of capital and FDI (made easier by EU or NAFTA, etc)
- aid flows (providing this can be linked with the work of world trading organizations and financial institutions).
Credit other valid flows and institutions.
Good answers might provide data and evidence for financial flows or they may offer a structured (AO4) explanation of how different institutions influence different types of flow. Another approach might be to explain financial flows in ways that show they are sometimes interrelated and could influence one another (lending can help a country to develop, in turn attracting FDI; this in turn may encourage migration and remittances).
For band C (4–6), two financial flows should be outlined and linked weakly with the influence/actions of one or more financial institutions.
For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of
- either two or more detailed financial flows
- or detailed actions/ influence of different named institutions
For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content
Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:
- fewer food miles
- reduced carbon/ecological footprint / climate change mitigation
- less trade/financial flows between core/periphery (de-globalization)
- renewed economic growth in localities where local production is renewed
- rejection of globalization production / TNCs / falling profits for agribusiness
- reduced interdependency between countries
- protectionism / isolation / less need for MGOs.
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:
- might be structured around different kinds of geographical consequences (eg consequences for old producer and new producer regions; costs and benefits for different groups/places)
- might systematically discuss the effects of changes for different types of globalized product.
For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant economic and/or environmental themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12), expect
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide (both economic and environmental)
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.
Question
Using examples, analyse the role of global interactions in the growth of environmental awareness.[10]
Discuss the reasons for the global diffusion of consumer culture.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 indicative content:
- Relevant global interactions may include flows of data and information, such as internet campaigning by civil society organizations. Also credit other types of interaction playing a role, including migrants or tourists who help awareness of issues to diffuse to new places.
- Campaigning may be linked to specific issues, such as transboundary pollution. Environmental awareness is a blanket term covering many issues. Other examples could include global climate change, biodiversity, deforestation, etc.
- Credit the idea that global interactions/globalisation/global development has given rise to environmental challenges (climate change, resource security) and that people are now aware of these issues.
Good answers might offer a structured (AO4) analysis of different types of global interaction (information, commodity flows) or different environmental causes (climate change, biodiversity). Another approach might be to analyse rising environmental awareness in specific contexts, eg the diffusion of environmental awareness to
people in different or new contexts (new consumers in emerging economies).
For band C (4–6 marks), an example of the growth of environmental awareness (such as an NGO campaign or film) will be be outlined and linked weakly with global interactions (such as ICT use, or the global trade flows which cause the issues).
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:
- either the role of a range of global interactions (such as data flows and trade flows)
- or two detailed examples of the growth of environmental awareness/ campaigns.
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Consumer culture can be understood as a lifestyle in capitalist societies wherein the consumption of goods and services occupies a central role, in terms of people’s use of leisure time, aspirations, and even their personal identity construction. It is sometimes associated negatively with unsustainable/“throwaway” use of commodities/resources. It can also be associated positively with the progression of people beyond poverty and into the consumer classes. Global diffusion patterns include the growth of consumer classes in emerging economies.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content:
- shrinking world technologies and the global diffusion of media/aspirations [Guide 3]
- financial flows from core to periphery regions [Guide 2]
- poverty alleviation, financial flows and the growth of new markets [Guide 3]
- branded commodities and the power of TNCs to build markets [Guide 5]
- migration, tourism and population movements [Guide 3, 5].
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation might:
- critically discuss the relative importance of different reasons/global interactions which either aid diffusion of cultural traits or help to build incomes/markets
- discuss different traits of consumer culture, such as the diffusion of music, fast food, branded commodities, etc
- distinguish between the means of diffusion (eg TNCs) and the reasons why people are receptive to the arrival of “global culture” (eg state policies).
Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of places/countries where consumer culture has not diffused to / has been blocked, such as North Korea. However, some AO3 credit could be awarded for briefly drawing a contrast between liberal states and non-liberal states (such as North Korea) in order to demonstrate the high importance of liberal government as a reason for cultural diffusion.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant reasons/themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes/reasons from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Question
Using examples, analyse the reasons why some places have become international outsourcing hubs.[10]
Examine the challenges that increased global adoption of information and communications technology (ICT) brings to different places.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 indicative content:
- The outsourcing definition is included in the subject guide. Hubs are well-networked places within global networks.
- Global information flows have helped some places, such as Bangalore and Manila, to become hubs for international outsourcing centres (call centres). ICT and information flows are also an important reason for the growth of outsourcing of manufacturing and agriculture (allowing complex networks of supply and
demand to function). - In addition to ICT, other factors play a role and may provide reasons for the growth of outsourcing in certain places, such as government incentives and human resources (including literacy and languages spoken).
Good, structured (AO4) answers may provide detailed exemplification of outsourcing hubs (cities and districts rather than merely countries). They may analyse the reasons why particular locations have a comparative advantage over others in terms of ICT provision or other production costs compared with other places. Or they may be more selective in the way they analyse outsourcing by breaking this into constituent parts, such as manufacturing and services or agriculture sectors.
For band C (4–6 marks), expect weak outlining of the reasons why international outsourcing happens in a recognizable country or city.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:
- either the reasons for international outsourcing to specific places
- or different categories/sectors of international outsourcing.
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
ICT refers to internet, broadband, mobiles and smartphones used by citizens, businesses and governments. From this arise multiple contexts for possible local challenges to be examined. Countries/national governments are creditable as places in addition to more local areas and neighbourhoods. The growing global pattern of adoption shows rapid uptake in Asia, Latin America and Africa (though at a slower rate than in Asia).
There are economic, social, cultural and political challenges and these vary according to the context.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content:
- the challenges of the shrinking world effect including unchecked flows of culture [Guide 2]
- global diffusion of culture is lined with cultural imperialism/loss of identity [Guide 5]
- loss of sovereignty for states/governments unable to control citizens’ internet access [Guide 6]
- the way ICT enables increased outsourcing and offshoring, which may have negative impacts [Guide 3]
- use of ICT by anti-globalization and terror groups (perspectives will vary on this) [Guide 7]
- the challenge of the digital divide and lack of participation in ICT (factors include income, age, literacy level), which in turn link to disparities in wealth at varying scales [Guide 3]
- e-waste is a product of growing ICT use [Guide 4].
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:
- might offer a carefully structured examination of different challenges in specific geographic contexts
- might offer a structured examination of the way different categories of ICT are affecting places and user groups
- might examine challenges from multiple perspectives, such as that of the state or its individual citizens (and in relation to people’s age, culture and identity).
Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of benefits derived from ICT, such as Kenya’s M-Pesa scheme: this is not asked for. However, some AO3 credit may be gained for any ongoing evaluation of the way certain challenges can – in part – be alleviated/offset/ameliorated by the benefits ICT nonetheless brings.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant technology/shrinking world themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Question
Using one or more examples, analyse the geographic challenges associated with transboundary pollution.[10]
Examine how disparities between countries give rise to different global flows.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Transboundary pollution has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse an “event”, such as a major oil spill, or a pervasive air pollution event or period of acid rain (which could last for many months or even years – an example being NW Europe in the 1970s and 1980s). Whatever examples are used, it should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”.
- “Geographic challenges” includes the consequences of the pollution, such as immediate human, ecological and environmental impacts.
- There are also longer clear-up operations and challenges to consider.
- Also, there is the challenge of achieving effective regulation / prevention with pollution management strategies, including global governance of the issue(s).
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse different categories of geographic challenge eg economic, political and environmental or short and long term. Another approach might be to compare issues for countries closer to the pollution source with issues for countries further away. Another approach might be to analyse the challenges of preventing future pollution given the physical processes involved eg atmospheric circulation. Another approach might be to analyse how the geographic challenges differ according to the scale of the problem and the number of states and stakeholders that are affected.
Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well-analysed (idea of TNCs moving their pollution / unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (though not transboundary, some limited credit for the transnational aspects of the case study could be given). Accounts of carbon emissions and climate change should also be treated like this.
For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the effects of transboundary/transnational pollution in one or more contexts.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:
- either one or more detailed examples of the consequences of actual transboundary pollution
- or different types of geographic challenge (eg near & far challenges, short and long-term challenges or economic and governance challenges).
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on disparities between countries or different global groups of countries: these may include economic, social, political or other disparities. The question suggests that disparities give rise to multiple flows. These range from financial flows to migration and the movement of ideas and information.
Better answers will maintain a focus on flows eg FDI, remittances; weaker answer may at times become more descriptive of the actions or impacts of different stakeholders/actors eg TNCs (and flows may be implied rather than explicitly examined).
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
- labour/migration flows [Guide 3]
- financial flows, eg remittances/aid/loans [Guide 3]
- investments by global institutions such as the IMF [Guide 3]
- raw material flows [Guide 4]
- waste disposal flows [Guide 4]
- information flows routed via low-cost outsourcing centres [Guide 3]
- TNC investment into new emerging markets and profit repatriation [Guide 5]
- past/present cultural exchanges linked with core–periphery labour flows [Guide 6].
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three or more of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the complexity of global disparities (there are multiple development gaps and disparities eg between emerging economies and the least developed states). Another approach might be to examine non-economic disparities eg differences in governance and human rights. Another approach might be to examine the scale of different flows/movements (eg USA and Mexico are neighbour countries; India and UK are distant from one another).
Answers dealing only with movements from “poor” to “rich” places will most likely show only limited understanding of what could be meant by “disparities between countries” and are unlikely to reach the highest band even if factually detailed.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.