Question
Evaluate the impact of the Dreyfus affair in France.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to review the impact of the Dreyfus Affair on French politics and society. Candidates could argue that it changed France greatly or that it merely confirmed pre-existing conflicts within French society.
Indicative content
- The Dreyfus affair (1894–1906) involved a Jewish Army officer, Captain Albert Dreyfus, condemned in a closed military court martial for selling secrets to Germany.
- While Emile Zola took an active part in defending Dreyfus, French political parties, newspapers and public opinion were sharply divided. Broadly speaking, those on the Left argued that he had been unfairly treated, while those on the Right affirmed that such arguments were an attack on the honour of the French Army. Dreyfus was eventually cleared in a civilian appeal court in 1906.
- Politically, the immediate impact of the affair was to create a degree of unity among the pro-Republican parties that led to the Waldeck Rousseau “government of Republican defence” of June 1899 (against the anti-Dreyfusards who were perceived to be threatening the Republic). This government was the first time a French Socialist, Millerand, had held cabinet office in the Third Republic.
- In the longer term, the Dreyfus affair galvanized both anti-Semitism on the Right and anti-clericalism on the Left in France. In the latter case, this led to the expulsion of most religious orders from France, the closure of most religious schools and the separation of Church and State in 1905.
- It is arguable that the Dreyfus affair prevented the development of a moderate Catholic political party supportive of the Republic. Instead, a section of the Right developed into Action Française, a movement that emphasized the supremacy of the state and a national community based on “blood and soil” and which stood against French Revolutionary ideas.
Question
Compare and contrast the policies of Louis XVIII and Charles X.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
The question requires that candidates give an account of similarities and differences in the policies of the restored Bourbon kings, referring to the policies of both monarchs throughout and covering the period between 1814 and 1830. Candidates may focus on constitutional or religious policies, the treatment of political opponents and foreign relations. Comparisons may include the fact that both accepted the need for an element of democracy and neither attempted a return to the Ancien Régime. Both, however, believed in the Divine Right of Kings and both gave some latitude to groups who wanted revenge for events during the Revolution. For contrast, Louis XVIII was more conciliatory and worked harder not to antagonize French opinion, while Charles X was willing to restrict press freedom and, to some extent, democracy. Charles X was more influenced by the Church than Louis XVIII, who had a more successful foreign policy, through which France was (by 1823) once again accepted as a major power.
Question
Evaluate the reasons why the Second Republic was overthrown.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
The question requires that candidates make an appraisal of the various reasons for the overthrow of the Second Republic and weigh up their significance. Louis Napoleon’s coup d’état of December 1851 effectively marked the end of the Second Republic. Reasons could include the lack of support nationally, the alienation of key supporters (June Days, 1848) and divisions on the Left, which undermined support for the Republic. The actions and ambitions of Louis Napoleon were key to the overthrow. Louis was underestimated by many politicians and played off one faction against the other. Further, he excelled at fostering a positive image, presenting himself as defender of the Revolution while at the same time using the appeal of his name to offer a return to the glory days of empire. He was thus able to gain support from left and right and to also offer strong government.