Question
“Between the late 18th century and 1820, internal and external challenges undermined the imperial rule of the Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to provide a considered and balanced review of the assessment that both internal and external challenges undermined the rule of the Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty. A reasoned conclusion is expected and some candidates may elect to adjudicate which was the most significant issue for the Qing dynasty: internal or external forces.
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- The reign of the Emperor Qianlong (Ch’ien-Lung) (1735–1796) during the eighteenth century saw the height of the Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty’s power. He was followed by Jiaqing (Chia-chi’ing) (1796–1820).
- During this period the Qing government in Beijing (Peking) appeared to be one of wealth and power. The institutions of the state included the Mandarin bureaucracy, the Imperial Examination System and the tribute system.
- By the end of Qianlong’s long reign there were unresolved issues: an increased population, which put pressure on the land and was beginning to create discontent; the situation of the peasants and the entrenched feudal nature of land ownership; rising prices; increased taxation; official corruption and incompetence; secret society activity; religious and ethnic discrimination; and the decline in military effectiveness.
- Corruption within the system was also an issue, as were economic hardships, natural disasters, the impact of provincialism and the rebellions—for example, the White Lotus (1796–1804) and Miao (1754–1806) rebellions—all indicate that the Qing dynasty faced internal challenges.
- The Macartney (1793) and Amherst (1816) trade missions and the effects of Western trade demands to change the Canton system of trade all put external pressure on the dynasty.
- Economic changes brought about by the introduction of the opium trade began to undermine imperial rule.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the consequences, up to the 1860s, of the unequal treaties that the Western powers made with China and Japan.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the consequences of the unequal treaties, including territorial changes, extraterritoriality and economic provisions. Many candidates will attempt to order or rank the consequences; however no set approach is prescribed. Nevertheless, candidates should attempt to reach a substantiated judgment.
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China
- The 1842 Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking) opened up the five Treaty Ports to trade and Hong Kong was ceded to Britain. This was followed by the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue in 1843 that gave most favoured nation status and extraterritoriality to Britain. In 1844, the Treaty of Wangxia (Wanghsia) with the United States was signed. This granted the US extraterritoriality and the right to maintain churches and hospitals in the Treaty Ports. The Treaty of Huangpu (Whampoa) with France was also signed in 1844 and this gave the French the right to freely spread Catholicism.
- The consequences included humiliation, the decay of the Qing dynasty, internal unrest and serious challenges to Qing power, such as the Taiping Rebellion. The effects were the continuation of the opium trade and the further extension of western influence. The various indemnities had severe economic consequences for China.
- Sino-Western relations deteriorated further and after the Second Opium War the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin (Tientsin) proposed further Western intrusion in to China. Eleven more Treaty Ports were to be opened up, Western powers gained the right to establish legations in Beijing, foreigners could travel and trade freely throughout China, Christian missions were able to expand and religious tolerance was to be accepted, and further indemnities were to be paid.
- This treaty was not initially ratified by China and as a consequence of which was the Anglo-French expedition that razed the Summer Palace in 1860. The terms were then formally accepted at the Convention of Beijing.
- Further consequences were more humiliation, the destabilizing effect of Western cultural values and Christianity, further weakening of the dynasty and the rise of the Treaty Ports as places of discontent.
Japan
- The unequal treaties were the 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa and the 1858 Treaty of Edo (Harris Treaty). These forced Japan to end its isolation and open up its trade.
- The consequences included the sonno joi movement (“Honour the Emperor and expel the barbarian”), the weakening of the alternative attendance rule and the other ways in which the Shogun had maintained control over the daimyo, the Satsuma and Choshu wars against the West from 1860 until 1864, the meeting of the Shogun and the Emperor in Kyoto in 1863 when the Shogun was ordered to expel the Westerners, the inability of the Shogun to withstand Western demands, the legal power of the Emperor and the Western negotiations with him, the tozama clans’ challenge to the Shogun’s power, the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1867, the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and the Charter Oath.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the reasons for, and the consequences of, the failure of the Western trade missions to China.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates will consider the reasons why the Western trade missions failed to achieve their aims and gauge the significance of this failure in the worsening of relations between China and the West. Some candidates may suggest that mutual incomprehension was at the heart of the failure of the trade missions. Others may additionally, or alternatively, argue that China’s deeper domestic difficulties provided context for the failure of the missions. However, there is no prescribed response.
Indicative content
Macartney Mission 1793
- The key aims of the British trade mission were to relax the rules of the Canton System, establish an embassy and to persuade the Chinese to buy British goods rather than only trade for silver.
- Reasons for failure could include that the meetings did not take place in Beijing (Peking), which undermined Macartney’s wish for a permanent embassy there; Macartney refused to kowtow in the presence of the Qianlong (Ch’ien-lung) Emperor; the Qianlong Emperor referred to all Europeans as barbarians.
- The consequence of failure was that although the mission failed to achieve its aims the observations made during the mission made the British even more determined to “open up” China.
Amherst Mission 1816
- Amherst’s instructions were to remove the grievances at Canton: establish free trade; abolish the Co-hong system; allow the British traders to reside there without a time limit; open more ports to trade; and to establish diplomatic representation in Beijing.
- Amherst refused to kowtow and refused to attend an audience with the Emperor immediately upon arrival in Beijing. This resulted in his trade mission being expelled from China without results.
- The consequences were that the Chinese Emperor was insulted, but he only continued to allow trade for fear of war with Britain. The British government decided to avoid war for the time being and tacitly allowed the growth of the illegal trade in opium by private traders.
Napier Mission 1834
- The main aim was to develop further British trade with China by opening up more ports.
- Reasons for failure could include that Lord Napier lacked diplomatic skills and ignored Chinese protocol; he attempted to bypass the Canton System by communicating directly with Chinese officials.
- The consequence of this failure was that Napier favoured military action to break the deadlock
and sent ships to Huangpu (Whampoa), where a skirmish broke out.
General reasons
- Reasons for the failure of the trade missions could include China’s view of itself as the Middle Kingdom; the different views of the Chinese and British on trade, for example, the Canton System in contrast to the British view of free trade; cultural difference, for example, China’s tributary system in contrast to Britain’s desire for diplomatic relations.
- Candidates may also discuss general consequences of the failure of the missions. These may include worsening relations, including the increase of opium being imported into China and the build up to the First Opium War.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
With reference to the period up to 1868, examine the political impact of Commodore Perry’s arrival in Japan.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to focus on the political situation that Japan faced in the years 1853 to 1868 (Bakumatsu period) as a result of Perry’s arrival. Although candidates may set the political context for Perry’s arrival, their responses should focus on the set period.
Indicative content
- The political situation prior to Perry’s arrival may be briefly discussed to show that Japan was already politically unstable. For example, Dutch trading and “Dutch Learning” (rangaku), calls for the restoration of the Emperor (sonno joi), and social and economic factors that had an impact on the feudal structure, such as the weakening of the alternative attendance rule.
- The initial political crisis was caused by the indecision of the Shogun to respond to Perry’s demands. His consultations with the Emperor and the Daimyo were seen as a sign of weakness. The decision to agree to Perry’s demands led to opposition.
- The decision to end the traditional policy of isolation (sakoku) led to a series of unequal treaties that undermined the position of the shogun. These treaties included the Treaty of Kanagawa 1854; Treaty of Edo 1858 (Harris Treaty); Ansei Treaties 1858, which led to the opening up of Japan for trade with the US, the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands and Russia.
- The Satsuma and Choshu Wars were a result of the dissatisfaction with the shogunate’s handling of Perry’s arrival. The imperial forces eventually put down the alliance of the western samurai (tozama clans) but 12,000 men were killed.
- The Tokugawa Shogunate fell when Yoshinobo resigned in 1867. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 resulted in Imperial power being restored.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.