Question
“Political divisions between 1929 and 1933 were the main cause of the collapse of democracy in Germany.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the suggestion that the political crisis that occurred in Germany was a consequence of the divisions amongst Weimar political parties: that these divisions contributed to the weakness of democratic government and led to a political vacuum that was filled by the extremism of the Nazis and the German Communist Party (KPD).
Indicative content
• There may be consideration of the economic crisis and its consequences. The context for the political crisis can be gauged from the removal of foreign investment, rising unemployment, the collapse of business, the collapse of banks such as Credit Anstalt in 1931 and the deepening recession (not inflation).
• The problem for the government was how to deal with the increasing burden of welfare spending: unemployment rose and there was a danger that the state may have gone bankrupt.
• The response of the various Chancellors, Müller, Brüning, von Papen and von Schleicher may be examined as may the response of the various parties. The German Social Democrats (SPD), for example, would not accept a reduction in benefits and the Centre Party and the German Democratic Party (DDP) would not accept tax rises. These factors led to the collapse of the Müller government, which was the last truly democratic government.
• Brüning (the Hunger Chancellor), relied on Article 48 (109 times) to pass legislation and this undermined democracy. Von Papen also relied on presidential support and lacked any real political credentials (the SPD and the Nazis combined and passed a vote of no confidence); Schleicher was in a similar position.
• The increasing support for the Nazis did not make Hitler’s appointment as chancellor inevitable and the Nazis never gained a majority in the Reichstag. In fact, support for the Nazis was declining by November 1932.
• The failure of the more moderate parties to cooperate meant that Weimar politics was discredited. Advisors to Hindenburg convinced him that Hitler could be controlled and he was appointed chancellor, at the head of a coalition, in January 1933.
Question
Examine the successes and failures of Mussolini’s domestic policies.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are expected to consider the successes and failures of Mussolini’s domestic policies. They may do this by addressing his aims and gauging the extent to which these were achieved. Some candidates may argue that his main aim was to remain in power and strengthen Italy after the instability pre-1922 and that he was successful in that he remained in power until 1943. Others may argue that his policies were a failure as he did not strengthen Italy and he was easily removed from power.
Indicative content
Successes:
• His retention of power and the establishment of a one-party state provided political stability and dealt with the threat of a revolution. He also brought extreme elements of the Fascist party under control (Fascist Grand Council).
• The Lateran Accords settled the friction between Church and State and reconciled many Italians to Fascist rule. The retention of the Monarchy also led to support for the regime.
• The Corporate State was not entirely successful economically but it satisfied big business and the middle classes, both of whom benefitted. Corporatism destroyed the power of the Trade Unions (Vidoni and Chigi Palace Pacts). The Industrial Reconstruction Institute (IRI) was able to soften the worst impact of the Depression.
Failures:
• Fascistization policies, such as education policies, youth policies and Dopolavoro were not always successful. They were pursued enthusiastically by many Italians for the cheap leisure opportunities they presented; however most participants had limited ideological commitment to the regime. The Church remained influential especially in secondary education.
• Various “Battles”, such as Births, Grain, Lira and land reclamation may be examined. However, were they just propaganda? Did they help support the goal of autarky? Did they create more problems than they solved (for example, turning over vineyards to grain production led to a reduction in valuable exports)?
Question
Examine the social and economic impact on Italy of Mussolini’s domestic policies.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the relationship between Mussolini’s domestic policies and the social and economic changes that affected Italy during this period. The main focus is whether or not Mussolini’s policies changed Italian society and economy. Did he fascistize Italy and to what extent did the Fascist state direct the economy in order to achieve autarky?
Indicative content
Social policies
- Education policies were designed to indoctrinate the younger generation. Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to the party as did all children every morning. Textbooks were rewritten and by 1937 there was only one official history textbook. However many children left school at eleven years of age and, for those who stayed in secondary education, the Church remained very influential in implementing a traditional curriculum.
- Youth groups such as the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) were also a means of indoctrination and preparation for military service. Membership was made compulsory in 1937 but, despite this, 40 per cent of 4 to 18 year olds managed to avoid membership.
- The Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) was an after-work organization that was also designed to indoctrinate people; 40 per cent of industrial workers were members. The OND controlled a range of leisure activities from football to libraries and concerts. Organizers accepted financial support from the state although there was little real concentration on ideology.
- In the so-called “Battle for Births”, there were rewards for large families, such as a gold medal for women who had 12 children. Despite lower taxation and incentives to marry, the birthrate declined and women remained one third of the workforce.
- The long-standing tensions between Church and state were resolved by the 1929 Lateran Accords. Roman Catholicism became the state religion and remained an independent and potential rival for Fascist ideology.
Economic Policies
- The Corporate State was designed to reduce industrial conflict and increase production. Its main impact was to control working conditions and wages (Rocco’s Labour Law 1926) led to a decline in living standards for workers both in towns and rural areas where wages fell by 30 per cent. Big business remained independent and could influence government via the Confederazione generale dell’industria italiana (CONFINDUSTRIA, General Confederation of Italian Industry).
- Candidates may mention the Battle for Grain and the Battle for the Lire and in each case there should be consideration of whether these battles achieved their aims and also whether they were economically sound.
- Some may argue that despite increases in industrial production of around 9 per cent, Mussolini never achieved autarky as was demonstrated when war broke out in 1939.
Question
“By 1929, the Weimar Republic had overcome the problems of the immediate post-war years.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Responses will offer a considered and balanced review of the problems facing the Weimar Republic in the years from 1919 to 1923 and the extent to which these problems had been resolved by 1929. Problems identified will likely be political, economic and possibly diplomatic isolation. Political problems could include threats to the Republic, for example Spartacus, Kapp and Munich, the frequent changes of government and the levels of political violence (assassination of Rathenau and other politicians). Economic problems were inflation, hyperinflation and Reparations. Internationally Germany was a defeated occupied power.
Indicative content
- The main focus of responses should be the “Golden Years”. Stresemann was the dominant politician during this period and governments were coalitions of pro-Weimar parties. There were no attempted coups and Hindenburg’s election as President in 1925 reconciled the Nationalists to the Republic. The Nazis had a declining share of the vote at just over 2 per cent in 1928, so arguably politics had reached a level of stability with voters mostly supporting pro-Weimar parties. Some may argue that the Nazis and Nationalists were still a political force as indicated during the referendum on the Young Plan. It could also be argued that the collapse of Müller’s Coalition showed the weakness of politics.
- Economically, Germany had recovered from hyperinflation because of the introduction of the Rentenmark, followed by a new currency, the Reichsmark. The Dawes and Young Plans seemingly reduced the problems caused by Reparations. Foreign investment contributed to some industrial growth and German exports had grown. However, there were budget deficits because of welfare spending and there was a balance of trade deficit. Foreign investment was short term and insecure agriculture faced a recession from 1926.
- Internationally, Germany was once more involved in international affairs, and reference may be made to Locarno, membership of the League of Nations, signing the Kellogg-Briand pact and Stresemann’s leadership.
- It could be argued that despite the apparent prosperity of these years the economy was essentially unstable. Alternatively, it may be argued that Germany was relatively politically stable and it was the Depression that destroyed that stability and caused politics to become polarized.