Question
To what extent did the Sovietization of Eastern and Central Europe contribute to the emergence of the Cold War between 1945 and 1949?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
The term “Sovietization of Eastern Europe” refers to the expansion of Soviet influence over Eastern European countries by the end of 1949. Candidates are required to consider the merits, or otherwise, of the suggestion that Sovietization had an impact on the emergence of the Cold War during the given period. Other factors may be used for context and debate but the response must deal with the named issue and make a supported judgement on the importance of that issue.
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• It may be argued that communist governments were established in contravention of the Declaration on Liberated Europe agreed at Yalta.
• There was US criticism of the use of “salami tactics” by the Soviet Union. These were carried out by the infiltration of rival political parties, the rigging of elections and abuse of power, often through interior and defence ministries.
• The US and Britain were particularly concerned about the fate of Poland. Pledges for free elections were not upheld and the Lublin Government was firmly in place before the elections were held in 1947. There was criticism of the USSR from both the US and Britain for this apparent failure to keep a promise.
• Candidates may argue that Sovietization was a response to the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan with Cominform being resurrected in 1947 and COMECON set up in 1949.
• Events in Germany may be used to support arguments that there was a fear of Sovietization spreading into the Western zones and that this had contributed to the breakdown of the Allied Control Council in 1948. Conversely, it may be argued that the Berlin Blockade, for example, was Stalin’s response to Bi- and then Tri-zonia that hardened the line between the Soviet and the other zones of Germany.
• Other factors to be considered and assessed may include: fundamental ideological differences, Great Power rivalry, mistrust and suspicion, the roles of Truman and Stalin whose intransigence was apparent even at Potsdam.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the impact of the Cold War on the outbreak and development of either the Korean War or the Vietnam War.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
There are two parts to the question, both of which need to be addressed. When evaluating, candidates should appraise rather than merely list the reasons for and types of impact. Responses should consider the impact of both Cold War and internal tensions on the outbreak of their chosen conflict. Similarly they should consider whether the Cold War factors contributed to the duration and outcome of either conflict.
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Korea
• Border conflicts between the North and the South had been frequent since the withdrawal of occupying troops in 1948 (Soviet Union) and 1949 (US). Both Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee wanted to be leader of a reunited Korea.
• Kim Il Sung invaded South Korea in June 1950; he did so after receiving (after much persuasion) the approval of Stalin possibly because the US Defense Perimeter Speech suggested that the US had no interest in fighting to defend South Korea. Thus it could be argued that the initial conflict was an internal one about control of Korea and was not caused by Cold war tensions.
• The war rapidly became a Cold War conflict with the US calling a meeting of the UNSC and, due to the absence of the USSR, being able to pass a resolution condemning the invasion. Truman was concerned about the spread of communism in Asia and believed that Kim was acting on Stalin’s orders.
• Truman persuaded an initially reluctant Congress to approve the recommendations of NSC 68, which led to American assumption of the dominant world role in containing the spread of communism. Truman was keen to demonstrate that he was not soft on Communism after the “loss” of China in 1949.
• The Cold War had a significant impact on the development of the war since the US provided the greatest number of troops in the UN forces commanded by US General MacArthur. When UN forces approached the Yalu River, Cold War tensions contributed to the Chinese decision to actively support North Korea with 300,000 “volunteers”.
• Stalin’s involvement was very limited as he had no wish for a direct conflict with the US but recent interpretations suggest he supported a proxy war, with China pitted against the US.
• Despite intensive fighting the conflict became a stalemate by 1951 Truman was now committed to a limited war in Korea. Eisenhower took a similar view although there was some worry that he might sanction the use of atomic weapon if peace talks which had begun in 1951 continued to stall. An armistice was signed in July 1953 with the division of Korea along the 38th parallel. Cold war tensions had prolonged the war and to some extent prevented a permanent peace.
• Candidates could argue that the Cold war was a significant factor in causing the conflict although many Koreans desired a reunified country. Recent interpretations place much emphasis on the actions of Kim Il Sung causing the conflict in order to extend his power to South Korea. They may also point out that the involvement of the US and the Chinese were very much a consequence of Cold War factors.
Vietnam
• The US had supported the French financially in fighting the Viet Minh, who had emerged victorious by 1954.
• Eisenhower’s domino theory, a version of containment, committed the US to preventing the spread of communism. The US feared that Laos, Cambodia and Indonesia would fall to Communism.
• After the 1954 Geneva Conference, the Vietminh were persuaded to accept the temporary division until after elections in 1956. Elections were not held in the South and by 1959, there was active Viet Cong guerrilla warfare against the government of President Diem. North Vietnam wanted unification under Communism and worked to undermine Diem’s corrupt, US-supported regime. This meant that concerns about superpower areas of influence were influential in the build up to the outbreak of war.
• Kennedy regarded Vietnam as vital to US security. US advisers were present in South Vietnam carrying out “search and destroy” missions. Kennedy’s commitment was shaped by his stance as a “Cold Warrior” and US supported prevented the collapse of the regime in South Vietnam.
• By 1965, it was clear that the South could not survive without direct US military assistance. Johnson used the Tonkin Gulf Incident in 1964, to escalate the number of US forces in Vietnam and to authorize bombing raids on the North. The North was supported by China and the Soviet Union and was able to continue the guerrilla war in the South.
• Changing Cold war alignments allowed Nixon to gain Soviet and Chinese support for peace talks on Vietnam with a ceasefire arranged for January 1973. By 1975 South Vietnam had been taken over by the North and Vietnam was reunited.
• It could be argued that Cold War issues led to US, Chinese and Soviet involvement prolonging the conflict. However, it could also be argued that improved relations between the US, China and the Soviet Union helped bring the war to an end.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The Cold War had a significant impact on the effectiveness of the United Nations between 1945 and 1989.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must review, in a considered and balanced way, how the UN was affected by the Cold War. The aims of the UN and the impact of the Cold War on the UN may be examined with reference to specific conflicts and issues, with a focus on how far the UN was able to act effectively to fulfil its aims during this period.
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• Aims of the UN could include a commitment to peace and security, support for human rights and improved living standards.
• The veto powers of each of the permanent five members of the Security Council made it difficult to reach agreement. For example, when North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, the UN to was able to condemn the aggression only because of the absence of the USSR from the crucial vote. Once the USSR returned to the Security Council the UN was paralysed. This impasse was alleviated by the adoption of the Uniting for Peace resolution.
• It may be argued that the UN was more under the influence of the US in the immediate post-war period but that decolonization during the 1950s shifted the balance more towards the USSR.
• The UN failed to prevent conflict in Vietnam and Afghanistan as well as genocide in Cambodia and Guatemala.
• It may be argued that superpower tension made UN intervention in the Congo more prolonged and less effective than it might have been.
• In 1956, for example, the Suez Crisis was referred to the UN General Assembly and, despite being Cold War allies, the US criticised both France and Britain.
• The UN installed a peacekeeping force in Sinai after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. Similarly, the UN had peacekeeping forces in Lebanon (UNIFL) from 1978 onwards.
• There may also be discussion of the more successful aspects of the work of the UN, setting international standards of human rights, and improving health care in the developing world, for example. Although relevant, these would need to be linked to the Cold War and its impact, possibly by mentioning that both the US and the Soviet Union looked for opportunities to influence and gain the support of developing nations.
• It may also be argued that the UN was more effective as Cold War tensions eased after 1985, and there was success in establishing the independence of Namibia and bringing about a constitutional settlement in Cambodia. Candidates may see this as a reflection of both the US and the Soviet Union working for reconciliation through the UN.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the view that the policy of peaceful coexistence failed to promote good relations between the US and the USSR up to 1964.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the concept of “peaceful coexistence” and how far it failed to promote good relations between the US and the USSR up to the given date. The term, which meant that competition between communism and capitalism would be by non-violent means, was associated with Khrushchev, who was also, arguably, a reason for its mixed success.
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Failure to promote good relations
• There was continued anti-Russian rhetoric from the US administration, notably from John Foster Dulles.
• The Guatemalan coup of 1954 was planned and carried out because the US suspected that the Soviet Union was interfering in its sphere of influence by supporting President Arbenz.
• There was an expansion of Soviet influence in the developing world as relations improved with India and countries in the Middle East and this aroused the suspicion of the US.
• Tension over the “missile gap” was exacerbated by the launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957.
• Khrushchev’s 1958 Berlin Ultimatum and the building of the Berlin Wall caused tension.
• The U2 crisis ended the Paris summit of 1960 this could be blamed on the US.
• At the Vienna Summit of 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy had an acrimonious exchange over Berlin.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis led to an extreme risk of nuclear war between the US and USSR.
Examples of improved relations
• At the negotiations at the Geneva Conference in 1954, and the Geneva Summit of 1955, relations seemed to be improving and reference was made to the “spirit of Geneva”.
• There was agreement over Austrian neutrality and the Austrian State Treaty was signed in 1955.
• The US and the Soviet Union both condemned Britain and France during the Suez Crisis (prior to the declaration of the Eisenhower Doctrine on the Middle East in 1957).
• Khrushchev visited the US in 1959 and there was an agreement to seek a peaceful resolution of the Berlin issue.
• Post- Cuban Missile Crisis relations were good with Kennedy also making a “peaceful co-existence” speech in 1963.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the cultural impact of the Cold War on two countries, each chosen from a different region.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
This question gives an opportunity for study of a wide range of Cold War influences. Popular culture will probably provide the main focus, but sport and other cultural forms may also be discussed.
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• The US will be a popular choice, and candidates may analyse the impact of McCarthyism on the film industry and the prevalence of spy movies, novels and television programmes which portrayed the Russians as the enemy. For example, the James Bond movies reflected and re-enforced Cold War stereotypes.
• In Russia, films glorified the Soviet way of life although after the death of Stalin, there was less popular demonization of the West.
• Culture was used as propaganda: communist states sent their best ballet companies, symphony orchestras and folk ensembles to the West, while jazz artists, for example, visited the USSR.
• Sport, an aspect of popular culture, was also used to promote the capitalist and communist ways of life. Even the poorer countries devoted resources to the training of athletes to succeed in international arenas such as the Olympic Games.
• The impact of the Cold War on popular music may be mentioned. The Vietnam War, for example, inspired protest songs written by Bob Dylan, The Beatles and Joan Baez.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did internal problems contribute to the break-up of the Soviet Union?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates should consider the role played by internal problems in causing the break-up of the Soviet Union and gauge their importance in the context of wider factors.
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Internal factors
• Acute economic problems had resulted from an over-rigid central planning system which, had failed to produce economic growth and to improve living standards.
• Candidates may discuss the difficulties of reforming the Soviet political and economic system, which had been propped up by an ageing leadership.
• Gorbachev started to reform the economy but his policies were opposed by hard-liners in the Politburo. This encouraged Gorbachev to carry out political reforms that resulted in nationalists gaining seats in the Supreme Soviet.
• The policy of glasnost also led to more open discussion of the problems confronting the Soviet Union and with this, more criticism of the government.
• In a downward spiral, glasnost and perestroika led to more serious economic problems (such as inflation and unemployment) and this unleashed even stronger opposition.
• Responses may refer to unrest in the republics, the coup against Gorbachev in August 1991 by members of the leadership who feared plans to give more power to the republics weekend Gorbachev’s position. Yeltsin encouraged nationalism and in December declared the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
External factors
• The policies of Ronald Reagan, that saw increased spending on defence including the “Star Wars” project, alarmed the Soviet Union. This increased Soviet defence spending that the state could not afford.
• American-inspired economic warfare included the deliberate suppression of the price of oil and gas and opposition to deals supplying Soviet gas and oil to Europe. This prevented economic recovery.
• Financial assistance to Solidarity in Poland and very significant US military assistance to the Afghan mujahedeen led to greater problems for the Soviet Union.
• The Soviet-Afghan War was also very expensive and a drain on economic recovery.
• Economic reforms in China put pressure on the Soviet Union to enact change.
• The rapid collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe in 1989–1990 (encouraged by Gorbachev’s “Sinatra Doctrine”) was an example to the Soviet republics who soon followed suit.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.