Question
With reference to Africa and/or Asia, to what extent did political ideology contribute to the rise of independence movements in two colonial territories?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that ideology was a key contributor to the rise of independence movements. Other factors may also be considered in order to present a balanced view. Arguments should be supported with relevant and accurate evidence.
Indicative content
Political ideology
• Political ideologies may have provided a programme of aims and beliefs that formed a basis for political action.
• Ideology may have provided links to similar movements in other countries that may have provided support and financial and/or military aid.
• Ideology also may have been explained to the people through the use of propaganda and this may have helped to win support.
• Ideology may have provided justification for political and/or economic change or it may have been used to justify armed rebellion.
Other factors
• Economic hardship, regardless of ideology, may have motivated demands for independence.
• Charismatic leadership, regardless of ideology, may have gathered support
• The granting of independence by the colonial power may have made political ideology less relevant.
• Tribal identity, rather than political ideology may have provided the strongest bond among members of a movement.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
With reference to Africa and/or Asia, examine the impact of the Cold War on the success of two independence movements.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the impact of the Cold War upon the development of independence movements in two states. These may be chosen from Asia alone, Africa alone or there may be one example from each continent. Responses may also consider other factors that led to independence in order to reach a judgment as to the impact of the Cold War.
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• The appeal of the ideology of either the USSR or the US may have been important in providing the core belief of a nationalist movement. Communism may have appealed because of its anti-imperialist ideology, leading to the rise of anti-colonialism and to calls for independence. The ideology of democracy may also have given support to calls for self-determination and independence.
• Support may have been given by either (or sometimes both) superpower in the form of financial and/or military aid and so assisted in eventual victory.
• The success of independence movements in neighbouring states may have facilitated the spreading of ideology and, on a more practical level, financial assistance or shelter for guerrilla movements as well as access to resources.
• Independence movements may have resulted in armed struggle that, in turn, became proxy conflicts with superpower support that was maintained until independence was achieved.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“Armed struggle was not the most important factor in the achievement of independence.” Discuss with reference to India or Indochina.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Responses are expected to provide a considered and balanced review of the suggestion that colonial power was not as effective as it had once been, and that it was this – rather than armed struggle – that paved the way for the independence of either India or Indochina.
Indicative content
India
Armed Struggle:
• An early revolutionary movement in 1906 led by Tilak called for an armed uprising was short-lived and not decisive.
• The Indian National Army (INA) led by Subhas Chandra Bose fought in Burma against the British to try and gain independence. At the end of the war thousands of INA soldiers were put on trial for treason. There was the threat of mutiny in the Indian Army and Navy and widespread popular support for the INA prisoners. It may be argued that this had a marked effect on the timing of the British retreat from India that may not have taken place as early as 1947 if not for the legacy of the INA.
Other factors:
• Candidates may argue that Britain emerged from the First World War with a weakened economy and with greater awareness of the growth of nationalism within its empire. This arguably, helped the passage of the Government of India Acts in 1919 and 1935.
• After the First World War, the ideology of imperialism lost ground and the League of Nations, for example, called for progress towards decolonization.
• The Second World War led to the further weakening of Britain’s role as an imperial power and lessened its resistance to granting Indian independence.
• The civil disobedience, non-cooperation and Quit India campaigns, led by Gandhi, helped to mobilize the population of India and to turn the call for independence into a mass movement.
• The legal methods used by the Congress Party were also significant in achieving independence.
Indochina
Armed Struggle:
• There was nationalist resistance to the Japanese occupation of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia during the Second World War but, especially in Vietnam and Cambodia, this increased with the return of the French in 1946. Candidates may argue that armed struggle was of greater importance in Vietnam, for example, than Laos and Cambodia.
• In Laos, the Communist Pathet Lao were supported by the Vietminh and fought alongside them to achieve independence that was granted in 1953.
• In Cambodia, Prince Sihanouk declared independence and resisted the encroachment of the Vietminh. In 1953, France granted independence to Cambodia.
• In Vietnam, the Communist Vietminh, under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, declared independence but had to fight to prevent the resumption of colonial government. This led to the French-Indochinese War. Candidates may argue that the defeat of France by 1954, was crucial to the achievement of independence.
• France’s war against the Communist Vietminh became, to some extent, a Cold War conflict with the US supporting France with arms and money. This was insufficient, however, to prevent the defeat of France.
• The cost of the war damaged the French economy to the extent that even the Marshall Aid received by France was less than a third of the cost of the war. This made the conflict uneconomic and French withdrawal more likely. Candidates may argue that the armed struggle was so decisive that it greatly weakened France as a colonial power and so the two factors are very closely intertwined.
Other factors:
• The defeat of France by Nazi Germany in 1940 had damaged France’s reputation and, despite France’s desire to remain a strong Empire, it had lost considerable prestige, especially in its colonies.
• The Brazzaville Conference of 1944 indicated that France was ready to allow greater autonomy within its African empire.
• Despite US support for a continued French presence in Indochina, after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and the Korean War, France could no longer afford the cost of waging war.
• As with Britain, the post-war climate was critical of colonization and public opinion was less likely to support imperialism.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the factors that led to the end of Soviet control in two states in Central/Eastern Europe.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to assess the strengths and limitations of the factors that led to the breakup of Soviet control in two states from Central and Eastern Europe. They may consider internal factors as well as external factors, including the impact of Gorbachev’s policies.
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• Economic problems contributed to discontent with the ruling party and this exacerbated existing tensions.
• Open discussion of events such as the Katyn Massacre (Poland), the Hungarian Revolution, the Prague Spring and the 1953 Riots in East Germany led to a re-examination of how Soviet control had been imposed.
• The spread of organized dissent through movements such as Solidarity and Charter 77 made opposition more organized and public.
• The role played by religious institutions such as the Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church was significant as it provided a space for alternative viewpoints, critical of the state, to be discussed.
• External influences such as Human Rights Watch Committees as well as Western governments, that linked up with different opposition groups, were important for lending support to domestic opposition groups.
• The impact of Gorbachev’s policies and reforms in the Soviet Union encouraged the demand for similar reforms in the satellite states.
• Gorbachev declared the abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine and refused to send Soviet troops to prop up the governments of the satellite states.
• The refusal of some governments to carry out reforms made their demise more likely.
• In August 1989, events in Poland and Hungary and the opening of the Austrian border with Hungary sparked mass demonstrations in East Germany. The Berlin Wall fell in November 1989 and protests followed in other satellite states such as Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the role of two of the following in leading their countries to independence: Ben Bella (Algeria); Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam); Mugabe (Zimbabwe); Nkrumah (Ghana); Walesa (Poland); Havel (Czechoslovakia).
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to appraise the strengths and limitations of the role of two of the leaders mentioned in leading their countries to independence.
Indicative content
• Charismatic leadership may have increased popular support for independence.
• Political or military experience may have provided expertise in leading independence movements.
• The ability to use propaganda effectively to explain and popularize the call for independence.
• An international profile may have provided access to influential support from outside the country.
• During the Cold War, ideological ties to the US, Soviet Union or China may have given access to support and assistance.
• The ability to take advantage of changing world opinion that was more likely to support calls for independence.
• A reputation for resistance to authority and, perhaps, a demonstrated willingness to suffer imprisonment or exile in order to achieve their aims.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the impact of racial and separatist movements in India or Pakistan or Yugoslavia.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Responses will provide a considered and balanced review of the impact of racial and separatist movements on their chosen country. In many cases, regional movements were based on one or both of these factors and there may, where relevant, be links to linguistic and/or religious views.
Indicative content
India
• Possibly, the best known separatist movement was in Kashmir. Despite agreements about demarcation boundaries there were several conflicts. The impact on India was considerable both in terms of conflict and because it symbolized the deep divisions between India and
Pakistan.
• In Punjab, the separatist movement of the majority Sikh population demanded autonomy soon after partition. There was a threat to the security of the state as the movement became more militant. The Indian Army entering the Golden Temple in 1984 had significant repercussions including the assassination of Indira Gandhi and subsequent killing of thousands of Sikhs.
• There are many other smaller groups who were vocal in their demands for autonomy such as the Naga people, the people of Tribura and in the Tamil-speaking region of southern India. In all cases, candidates should explain the impact these had on the state.
Pakistan
• Candidates may refer to the breaking away of East Pakistan in 1971 with the formation of Bangladesh and the impact this had upon what now became Pakistan. The implications were far reaching and affected internal politics with the emergence of Bhutto as a non-military leader, as well as Pakistan’s relations with India and may be linked to Pakistan’s determination to become a nuclear power.
• The Sindh separatist movement may be mentioned and its impact assessed as rather limited as its political support was quite small.
• The Balochi separatist movement, including supporters from Iranian Balochistan, had considerable impact on Pakistani politics.
• Similarly, the Pashtun on both sides of the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan demanded autonomy and/or political influence in both countries.
Yugoslavia
• After the death of Tito in 1980 there were calls for autonomy, especially in the northern republics that felt that the federal system was hindering their economic growth. Some republics also resisted Serb ambitions under the leadership of Slobodan Milosevic.
• In the early 1980s, there was growing demand in Kosovo, where a significant percentage of the population was of Albanian descent, for autonomy from Serbia.
• There was also a breakaway movement in Montenegro that resisted closer ties with Serbia.
• Demands for autonomy grew in Croatia and Slovenia by the end of the 1980s.
• The calls for autonomy were also prompted by the dominance of Serbia in the Communist Party Congress and the difficulty of preventing this as Serbia had more representatives.
• Elections in the republics led to the ousting of Communist Parties in Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia Herzegovina and Macedonia.
• The impact of separatist movements was the end of Communist control, except in Serbia and Montenegro, a series of conflicts and the break-up of Yugoslavia.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.