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[q] UNIT 2
[a] Cell Structure and Function
[q] Organelles to remember
[a]
1. plasma membrane
2. cell wall
3. nucleus
4. nuclear envelope
5. chromatin
6. ribosomes
7. smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
8. rough endoplasmic reticulum
9. golgi apparatus
10. lysosomes
11. vacuoles
12. mitochondria
13. chloroplasts
14. peroxisomes
15. cytoskeleton
16. microtubules
17. centrosomes & centrioles
18. Cilia & flagella
19. nucleolus
[q] what does the plasma membrane do?
[a] controls what goes in/out of the cell
[q] Cell wall (plants)
[a] maintains structure. usually made of cellulose
[q] nucleus
[a] contains DNA
[q] nuclear envelope
[a] surrounds DNA
[q] nucleolus
[a] makes DNA
[q] Chromatin
[a] the actual thread of DNA
[q] ribosomes
[a] make protein
[q] Smooth ER
[a] makes lipids
[q] Rough ER
[a] packages and transports materials (typically proteins)
[q] lysosomes
[a] splits things apart/breaks things down
[q] vacuoles
[a] storage (ex: stores water in plants)
[q] mitochondria
[a] makes ATP (energy currency) by breaking down glucose
[q] chloroplasts
[a] makes sugar, they’re only in plants
[q] peroxisomes
[a] detoxify alcahol
[q] cytoskeleton
[a] internal structure
[q] microtubules
[a] smaller component of cytoskeleton
[q] centrosomes
[a] helps with cell division (mitosis/meiosis)
[q] cilia/flagella
[a] movement of cell
[q] What is the process in which energy is made in the mitochondria?
[a] cellular respiration
[q] What are the steps of cellular respiration?
[a]
1. Glycolysis: glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm
2. Krebs cycle: more detail later
3. electron transport chain: more later
4.Formula: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 –> 6CO2 +6H2O
Energy = ATP
[q] What is the process in which chloroplasts capture light to make sugars?
[a] photosynthesis
[q] What are the two phases of photosynthesis?
[a] 1. light dependent reactions. (electron transport chain)
2. Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)
3. Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (opposite of cellular respiration)
[q] The endosymbiotic theory states…
[a] Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living bacteria. they were engulfed by another cell and evolved to stay that way.
[q] What organelles are involved in making proteins?
[a] 1. Nucleus: DNA –> RNA
2. Ribosomes: RNA –> protein
3. Rough ER: Folds proteins (structure/function)
4. golgi apparatus: packages proteins
[q] What are the two types of cells?
[a]
1. Prokaryotes: have no organelles except for ribosomes and membrane. smaller
2. Eukaryotes: have organelles
To remember which is which:
Pro rhymes with no (no organelles)
Eu rhymes with do (do have organelles)
[q] How does size relate to the efficiency of a cell?
[a]
1. smaller cells have a higher surface area to volume ratio (look up examples if this doesn’t make sense)
2. a higher SA:V ratio is better because it is less distance traveled to move things in and out of a cell
3. cells will fold, project, or elongate to increase their SA:V ratio (Ex: o –> 0)
[q] Three things that are usually in the plasma membrane
[a] 1. Phospholipids: make up the majority of the cell membrane. A hydrophilic head with two hydrophobic tails.
2. Proteins: channel proteins and receptor proteins exist on/in the plasma membrane. Channel proteins allow big/polar things through that cannot pass through the membrane. Receptor proteins receive signals.
3. Cholesterol (mainly animal cells): A lipid steroid that regulates membrane fluidity, keeps from freezing at low temps, and keeps from melting at high temps.
[q] What is selective permeability?
[a] The cell lets some stuff in and keeps other stuff out.
[q] What types of molecules can pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane?
[a]
1. Small non-polar molecules (O2, CO2, N2)
2. Small polar uncharged molecules: water
(water cannot efficiently go through the membrane quickly)
[q] If a molecule cannot pass through the bilayer, what is needed?
[a] Channel proteins or carrier proteins
[q] What types of molecules use proteins pass the membrane
[a]
1. Polar charged molecules
2. Big molecules
Ex: glucose is big and polar
Although water (polar uncharged) can pass through the bilayer, it can go through the membrane more efficiently through proteins called aquaporins.
[q] What is passive transport?
[a] 1. Uses no energy
2. Things are moved from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (diffusion)
3. usually membrane facilitated (passes through bilayer)
[q] What is osmosis?
[a]
1. Water with a solute (something dissolved into the water, like salt) will move across the membrane if the other side of the membrane has more solute.
2. This will occur until the water on both sides of the membrane has the same concentration of solute.
3. This is a form of passive transport
The solute does not pass through the membrane, the water does
A good way to think about it:
If there is more solute in the water, the water molecules have more stuff blocking them from moving through the membrane. If there is less solute in the water, more water molecules will pass through because there is less stuff blocking them. This balances out so the sides have the same solute per water.
[q] What is active transport?
[a] 1. uses energy (ATP)
2. Stuff goes from an area of low concentration to high concentration
3. Proteins are used usually
[q] what is endocytosis?
[a] A cell engulfs something big, active transport.
[q] What is exocytosis
[a] A cell expels a something big, active transport.
[q] Facilitated diffusion vs. simple diffusion
[a] 1. Facilitated diffusion uses a transport protein
2. simple diffusion goes right through the membrane
[q] What is osmoregulation and tonicity?
[a] 1. Osmoregulation: Cells use osmosis (remember 5 cards ago?) to regulate how much water is in them
2. Tonicity: determines if water will exit or enter the cell based on how much solute is in/around the cell.
[q] Three types of tonicity:
[a]
1. Hypotonic: more solute is in the cell, so water will enter the cell and the cell will grow. (you can remember that hypo rhymes with grow)
2. Isotonic: the solute in the cell is equal to the solute outside the cell. Size stays the same
3. Hypertonic: more solute is outside the cell, so water will exit the cell and the cell will shrivel up.
This is why saline solution is used in I.V.s; if water was used, the solute around you cells would decrease in concentration and your cells would gain water and possible burst. This is also why you shouldn’t drink soy sauce, your brain cells will shrivel up because you are putting more solute around them.
[q] Phospholipid
[a] a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes
[q] Ribosome
[a] Made of rRNA, synthesizes proteins
[q] Plasma membrane
[a] A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells
[q] Smooth ER
[a] Functions in detoxification and lipid synthesis
[q] Hydrophobic
[a] Water fearing
[q] Rough ER
[a] Associated with ribosomes, compartmentalizes the cell
[q] Hydrophilic
[a] water loving
[q] Golgi complex
[a] Corrects the folding and chemical modification of newly synthesized proteins, packaging for protein trafficking
[q] Fluid mosaic model
[a] model that describes that cell membranes consist of a structural framework of phospholipid molecules that is embedded with steroids and proteins
[q] Lysosome
[a] Membrane-enclosed sac that contain hydrolytic enzymes
[q] Vacuole
[a] Storage and release of macromolecules and cellular waste products.
[q] Correct arrangement of phospholipids in bilayer
[a] hydrophobic tails pointing toward inside the membrane, hydrophilic heads pointing out to the extracellular or intracellular space
[q] Bilayer
[a] a layer that is two molecules thick
[q] Mitochondria
[a] Provides compartments for different metabolic reactions.
[q] Phosphate group
[a] A functional group consisting of a phosphorus atom covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms
[q] Chloroplast
[a] Specialized organelles that are found in photosynthetic algae and plants.
[q] Matrix
[a] Inside mitochondria, the Krebs cycle (aka citric acid cycle) occurs here
[q] Inner mitochondrial membrane
[a] Electron transport and ATP synthesis occurs
[q] Thylakoid
[a] Inside the chloroplast, organized in stacks called grana. Responsible for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis
[q] Stroma
[a] The fluid within the inner chloroplast membrane and outside of the thylakoid, involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis (Calvin cycle)
[q] Surface area-to-volume ratio
[a] Ratio of a cell’s outside area to its internal volume.
[q] embedded protein
[a] proteins embedded into the phospholipid bilayer
[q] selective permeability
[a] A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
[q] substances that can freely pass through the plasma membrane
[a] small nonpolar molecules, such as N2, O2, and CO2
[q] substances that pass through embedded channels and transport proteins
[a] hydrophilic substances such as large polar molecules and ions
[q] exocytosis
[a] process of moving substances out of the cell, internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete large macromolecules out of the cell, requires energy input
[q] endocytosis
[a] the cell takes in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles derived from the plasma membrane, requires energy input
[q] facilitated diffusion
[a] movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
[q] aquaporins
[a] water channel proteins
[q] membrane potential
[a] The voltage across a cell’s plasma membrane, generated by a difference in ion concentrations on either side
[q] osmosis
[a] Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
[q] water potential
[a] the physical property that predicts the direction in which water will flow
[q] solute potential
[a] This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.
[q] pressure potential
[a] This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.
[q] water potential equation
[a] Ψ = Ψp+Ψs
[q] solute potential equation
[a] Ψs = -iCRT
[q] symbol for pressure potential
[a] Ψp
[q] symbol for solute potential
[a] Ψs
[q] symbol for water potential
[a] Ψ
[q] endosymbiosis
[a] A theorized process in which early eukaryotic cells were formed from simpler prokaryotes.
[q] prokaryote
[a] type of cell that generally lack internal membrane-bound organelles, but have internal regions with specialized structures and functions
[q] eukaryote
[a] type of cell that maintain internal membranes, partitioning the cell into specialized regions
[q] amphipathic
[a] A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.
[q] Apoptosis
[a] programmed cell death
[q] Channel Protein
[a] A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
[q] centrioles
[a] Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only
[q] Carrier Protein
[a] A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
[q] cell communication
[a] the process of cells detecting and responding to signals in the extracellular environment
[q] cyclic AMP (cAMP)
[a] Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells. It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.
[q] concentration gradient
[a] difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another
[q] Cytoplasm
[a] A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
[q] Cytoskeleton
[a] A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement
[q] Diffusion
[a] Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
[q] electron microscope
[a] microscope that forms an image by focusing beams of electrons onto a specimen
[q] Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
[a] A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.
[q] Glycolipids
[a] Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
[q] Glycoproteins
[a] Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
[q] G-protein-linked receptor
[a] A signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding signal molecule by activating a G protein.
[q] G protein
[a] a protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor
[q] hormone
[a] Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
[q] ion pumps (active transport)
[a] integral membrane proteins that use metabolic energy to transport ions against a gradient or electrical potential. USES ATP!!!
[q] ligand
[a] A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
[q] light microscope
[a] microscope that uses a beam of light passing through one or more lenses to magnify an object
[q] Magnification
[a] the increase of an object’s apparent size by using lenses or mirrors
[q] membrane
[a] thin layer of tissue covering a structure or cavity
[q] necrosis
[a] tissue death
[q] nuclear envelope
[a] Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
[q] nuclear pores
[a] structures in the nuclear envelope that allow passage of certain materials between the cell nucleus and the cytoplasm
[q] phosphorylation cascade
[a] A series of chemical reactions during cell signaling mediated by enzymes (kinases), in which each kinase in turn phosphorylates and activates another, ultimately leading to phosphorylation of many proteins.
[q] Pinocytosis
[a] A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
[q] Plasmolysis
[a] A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall; occurs when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment.
[q] protein kinase
[a] An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.
[q] quorum sensing
[a] The ability of bacteria to sense the presence of other bacteria via secreted chemical signals.
[q] Receptor
[a] protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response
[q] Resolution of a microscope
[a] measures direct clarity or ability to distinguish small but close objects
[q] second messenger
[a] a molecule that is generated when a specific substance attaches to a receptor on the outside of a cell membrane, which produces a change in cellular function
[q] signal cascade
[a] An entire series of reactions which occurs as a result of a single trigger reaction or compound.
[q] signal transduction
[a] the transmission of molecular signals from a cell’s exterior to its interior
[q] signal transduction pathway
[a] A series of steps linking a mechanical, chemical, or electrical stimulus to a specific cellular response.
[q] Prokaryote
[a] A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
[q] Eukaryote
[a] A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
[q] plasma membrane
[a] A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells
[q] Cytoplasm/Cytosol
[a] Cell liquid in which chemical reactions occur. Holds and cushions the organelles.
[q] nuclear envelope
[a] layer of two membranes that surrounds the nucleus of a cell
[q] Chromatin
[a] Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones
[q] Chromosomes
[a] a thread like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
[q] Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
[a] System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm
[q] Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
[a] An endomembrane system where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.
[q] Golgi apparatus
[a] A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
[q] Lysosomes
[a] An organelle containing digestive enzymes
[q] Vacuole
[a] Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
[q] Phagocytosis
[a] process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell
[q] Mitochondria
[a] Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
[q] mitochondrial matrix
[a] The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.
[q] Cilia
[a] Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion
[q] Flagellum
[a] A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move.
[q] Thylakoid
[a] A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy into chemical energy.
[q] cell wall
[a] A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms.
[q] Chloroplast
[a] An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs
[q] Stroma
[a] The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
[q] fluid mosaic model
[a] model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane
[q] phospholipid bilayer
[a] A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes.
[q] integral proteins
[a] Integral proteins that span the membrane.
[q] peripheral proteins
[a] bound to the surface of the membrane
[q] transport proteins
[a] membrane proteins that help move substances across a cell membrane
[q] Diffusion
[a] Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
[q] Osmosis
[a] Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
[q] concentration gradient
[a] difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another
[q] passive transport
[a] the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell
[q] Active transport
[a] Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
[q] Isotonic
[a] Having the same solute concentration as another solution.
[q] Hypertonic
[a] Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.
[q] Hypotonic
[a] when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes
[q] Plasmolysis
[a] This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.
[q] faccilitated diffusion
[a] the process in which molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the membrane pass through special protein channels
[q] ion channels
[a] channel proteins that transport ions
[q] Gated Channels
[a] A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
[q] sodium-potassium pump
[a] a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell
[q] Endocytosis
[a] A process in which a cell engulfs extracellular material through an inward folding of its plasma membrane.
[q] Exocytosis
[a] Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
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