Question
Answer either part (a) or part (b).
Either
(a) Examine the importance of glacial erosion in creating unique landscapes in glaciated upland areas.[10]
Or
(b) Examine how competition for resources in one or more extreme environments has led to conflict between different stakeholders.\([10]\)
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Glaciated upland areas are dominated by distinctive landscapes created by glacial erosion. However, other processes, including glacial deposition, periglacial, fluvial and other sub-aerial processes are also important in the formation of upland landscapes.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):
- Landscape features caused by glacial erosion include corries/cirques, pyramidal peaks/horns, arêtes, glacial troughs.
- Landscapes of glaciated uplands may also reflect processes such as glacial deposition, periglacial activity and subaerial processes.
- Depositional features are also important, including various types of moraine: lateral, medial, terminal.
- Other processes are also important in glaciated uplands, including freeze-thaw and other periglacial processes, creating landscapes, such as scree slopes, solifluction terraces and lobes and patterned ground.
- Fluvial and other sub-aerial processes are also important in the formation of landscapes, especially in post-glacial times.
Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3), which examines the role of glacial erosion in the formation of landscapes in glaciated upland areas, and its relative importance in relation to other processes. Another approach might be to examine how different processes may be important over longer time scales.
For 5-6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of how glacial erosion creates one or more landforms.
For 7-8 marks, expect a structured account which includes:
- either an evidenced explanation of the importance of glacial erosion in the formation of different landforms
- or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) of the relative importance of glacial erosion and other glacial and sub-aerial processes in the formation of landscapes.
For 9-10 marks, expect both of these traits.
(b)
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Arid and cold extreme environments possess considerable and increasingly important natural resources, including minerals, freshwater and scenic resources. Competition for access to resources has resulted in increasing tensions and conflicts between different stakeholders, especially between indigenous peoples and external organizations.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):
- Extreme environments contain significant resources such as fish, minerals, timber, oil and gas.
- Stakeholders include local indigenous peoples, national governments, TNCs, and environmentalists. These have differing priorities and concerns.
- Differing issues and viewpoints concerning exploitation of resources may lead to tensions and conflict between stakeholders.
- Conflicting viewpoints of stakeholders must be managed for the benefit of environments and communities.
Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3), which examines the differing viewpoints and conflicting issues of stakeholders, the varying power of stakeholders and future possibilities of managing conflicts.
For 5-6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of how competition for resources may result in conflict.
For 7-8 marks, expect a structured account which includes:
- either an evidenced explanation of how competition for resources has resulted in conflict between stakeholders
- or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.
For 9-10 marks, expect both of these traits.
Question
Define glacial environment.[2]
Define periglacial environment.[2]
Explain how and why glaciers retreat.[3+3]
“Periglacial areas offer more opportunities for human activity than glacial areas.” Discuss this statement.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Definitions may include any two of the following, 1 mark each:
- Area covered with snow and ice
- Permanent/long-term basis
- Area where glacial processes are operating
- Different scales include ice sheet, ice caps, glaciers.
Definitions may include any of the following, up to a maximum of 2 marks:
- A region with widespread permafrost (permanently frozen) [1 mark].
- Without ice cover or an area on the edge of areas permanently covered by ice/glaciers [1 mark].
- Distinctive periglacial processes and/or landforms [1 mark].
- May have categories – continuous, discontinuous, sporadic [1 mark].
Glaciers retreat when the ablation of ice [1 mark] exceeds [1 mark] the accumulation of snow and ice [1 mark].
Possible reasons include: climate change, which may be attributed to natural or human causes; volcanic activity; changes in the tilt or orbit of the earth; sunspot activity; cosmic rays and changes in the position of the land masses (tectonics).
Award 1 mark for each point made up to a maximum of 3 marks.
A list of points with no elaboration should only receive 1 mark.
Other valid reasons may be cited.
Periglacial areas, due to the lack of permanent ice, may offer opportunities for the extraction of minerals, and this is arguably being accelerated by climate change. They also offer opportunities for indigenous people (Inuit) who may herd reindeer in response to the seasonal climatic regime of freezing and thawing. Glacial areas also have opportunities. The opportunities may include tourism, outdoor pursuits, areas of outstanding natural beauty which are designated as parks, reserves of water and the generation of HEP.
Some candidates may choose to explore the net opportunities of each environment (looking at how opportunities outweigh challenges). This approach is equally valid.
Challenges may include the possibility of glacial surges, avalanches, landslides, road instability and flooding from glacial melt. While examples are not a specific requirement of the question, those answers that provide supporting examples are likely to access the higher markbands. Responses including explicit discussion of the statement are likely to be credited at bands E/F. It is likely that most responses will conclude by disagreeing with the statement but this is by no means the only possible conclusion. All responses should be judged strictly on their own merits.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
Most candidates were able to define glacial environments.
Most candidates were able to define periglacial environments.
Most were able to describe how glaciers retreat but why they retreat was less clearly explained.
Basic knowledge and understanding of the opportunities for human activity in glacial and periglacial areas was often lacking. Some answers saw “glacial” as synonymous with “polar” and completely ignored the numerous opportunities for human activity in the Alpine-type glacial areas of the world.
Question
Outline two physical causes of aridity in hot, arid environments.[4]
Explain two processes of weathering commonly found in hot, arid environments.[6]
“Human activity within periglacial environments is unsustainable.” Discuss this statement.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Sub-tropical high pressure [1] brings dry, descending air [1].
Continentality / interior has higher temperatures than coastal margins [1] due to lack of proximity to the sea [1].
Cold offshore currents [1] mean air does not rise / limits potential precipitation over land [1].
Rain shadow effect [1] means a lack of moisture/rain/water for places on lee side/far side/downwind of relief features/mountains [1].
[4 marks]
Possibilities include:
- exfoliation (involves layers of rock peeling off)
- granular and block disintegration (rock breaks down into grains/blocks)
- freeze-thaw (blocks break off due to ice expansion)
- salt crystal growth (crystals in pores create stress).
Do not credit erosion processes such as sand abrasion.
Award [1] for each process outlined (not simply named) and a further [2] for the brief explanation offered.
For example: Exfoliation involves layers of rock peeling off [1] due to expansion/contraction due to (large) temperature range/changes [1] in the presence of some moisture/water [1].
[6 marks]
Sustainability has been defined in a number of ways. One common one is using resources wisely without compromising the needs of future users. Within an extreme environment the resource base is quite fragile. There are a variety of approaches to analysing the question based on sustainable activities.
Indigenous people have generally lived sustainably in these environments. More recent activity by newer arrivals has not been as sustainable. Human activity includes settlement, infrastructure, communications, and resource development, including tourism. This more recent development has had adverse effects not only on the environment, eg degradation of soil or fauna within ecosystems, but perhaps on the culture of indigenous people.
Good answers may discuss the concept of sustainability and the degree to which environmental, social and economic needs can all be met in periglacial environments. Good answers might be carefully structured around different periglacial environments/places/levels of development and may discuss the extent to which sustainable goals can be met in each.
At band D, two human activities should be described and their sustainability commented on.
At band E, expect either more detailed explanation of different activities, or some discussion of the concept of sustainability in relation to periglacial environments.
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
[10 marks]
Question
Briefly outline two human factors that are possible causes of desertification in a hot, arid environment.[2]
Briefly outline two physical factors that influence the occurrence of flash floods in hot, arid environments.[2]
Explain three reasons why there are concentrations of people in some parts of hot, arid areas.[6]
Examine the severity of the different challenges for resource development in periglacial areas.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Award [1] for a description of the following, up to [2]:
- overgrazing
- over-cultivation
- deforestation
- overpopulation
- global warming
- mismanagement of water resources.
Award [1] for a description of the following, up to [2]:
- intensity of rainfall
- rain exceeding infiltration
- impermeable desert surface
- lack of vegetation
- other possible answers.
Award [1] for each valid reason, and [1] for development/exemplification.
Possible reasons include:
- mineral deposits
- tourist attractions
- irrigation/oases
- accessible aquifers
- military installation.
Accept other valid reasons.
For example: In Niger, the presence of uranium [1] has led to the development of the town of Arlit / associated settlement and infrastructure [1].
For example: Retirement resorts eg Palm Springs, have been built [1] which attract elderly/retired people who enjoy the hot, dry desert climate [1].
Resource development in periglacial areas is affected by the presence of permafrost. The challenges of coping with the constant thawing and melting require a range of measures in place in order to pursue resource development. Activities and techniques must be constantly monitored and modified in order to maintain infrastructure (transport, pipelines, bridges, airfields), buildings and settlement requirements. Other challenges might include relief, climate, accessibility/remoteness.
There are economic and social challenges for the successful extraction of minerals, for scientific research and for ensuring the long-term viability of the nomadic lifestyles of indigenous people who rely on resources found in these areas.
Good answers might examine explicitly the relative severity of a range of challenges. Another approach might be to examine different periglacial areas and the contexts and challenges they present, eg greater/more severe challenges in areas of discontinuous permafrost / areas with more active layer activity or climate change associated issues. They may also examine the extent to which some challenges may be overcome if the opportunities merit investment.
At band D, expect description of some challenges for resource development in permafrost areas.
At band E, expect either explanation of a range of challenges for resource development in periglacial areas, or a structured examination of the severity of these different challenges (may examine the degree to which they can be overcome).
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 2 HL and SL markbands.