Question
Answer either part (a) or part (b).
Either
(a) To what extent are diseases linked to malnutrition? [10]
Or
(b) Examine how geographic factors affect the rate of diffusion of agricultural innovation. [10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
There is a connection between malnutrition and disease. Malnutrition, or undernutrition
caused by lack of food or proper nutrition, is prevalent in low-income countries. This leads to
low weight and height, diseases such as rickets and scurvy, and a weakened immune
system to a variety of infectious diseases. Malnutrition also includes over-nutrition, especially
in high-income countries, where an excess of food can lead obesity and non-communicable
diseases such as diabetes and cardio-vascular disease. However, factors other than
malnutrition cause infectious diseases (e.g. cholera, malaria), including access to safe
drinking water, sanitation and overcrowding. These factors are also related to poverty and
malnutrition. The cycle of poverty, malnutrition, poor health, and disease is difficult to break
and overcome.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):
• Diseases caused by malnutrition are common in low-income countries. Food insecurity
means that people do not have enough to eat or a diet that lacks proper nutrition.
• Malnutrition results in stunted growth, diseases such as rickets and scurvy and a
weakened immune system to infectious diseases.
• Malnutrition also includes over-nutrition, where an excess of food can lead to obesity and
diseases such as diabetes and cardio-vascular disease.
• Infectious diseases, such as cholera, malaria and TB, are not directly caused by
malnutrition but are linked to factors such as access to safe drinking water, sanitation and
overcrowding.
• Poverty is a major cause of high incidence infectious diseases and of diseases caused by
malnutrition.
• Poverty is a link between malnutrition, poor health and disease. The scale of the
disease is intensified and can last from one generation to another.
• The cycle of poverty, malnutrition, poor health, and disease is difficult to break and
overcome.
Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical
evaluation (AO3), which examines the processes and links between diseases,
malnutrition and other factors in different places. Another approach might be to examine how
relationships may change over time scales, such as breaking the poverty cycle.
For 5-6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a link between malnutrition and
disease
For 7-8 marks, expect a structured account which includes:
• either an evidenced examination of links between malnutrition, other contributory
factors and disease,
• or a discursive conclusion (or on-going evaluation) grounded in geographical
concepts and/or perspectives.
For 9-10 marks, expect both of these traits.
(b) Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Diffusion involves the adoption and spread by expansion and relocation of agricultural
innovations. These may include new technologies, changes to farming systems and new,
improved seeds and livestock. The diffusion of agricultural change is uneven, both spatially
and in speed of adoption. The rate of diffusion is influenced by a range of geographic factors,
including physical, economic, social and political.
Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):
• The processes of diffusion include adoption/acquisition, expansion, and relocation.
• Rates of diffusion and extent of adoption vary considerably over time and space and are
affected by a range of different geographic factors (physical, economic, social and
political).
• Physical factors include type of terrain, climate, access to water, and soil quality.
Innovations tend not to spread easily across geographical barriers such as mountains,
deserts and oceans. The potential of agricultural change to cause environmental damage
may be a barrier.
• Economic factors include relative wealth and poverty, and access to capital and loans.
Land availability, patterns of ownership and type of agricultural system (e.g. subsistence
or agribusiness). Communications and infrastructure are also important.
• Social and political factors might include education and training, out-reach schemes, and
the role of NGOs in promoting/facilitating agricultural change. Isolation due to
government actions slow access to innovation. Political stability, and the role of women,
are also important factors.
Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical
evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the different geographic factors
and processes leading to varying rates of agricultural innovation in different places. Another
approach might be to examine why innovation has affected some places more than others,
and the power of different stakeholders.
For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of at least one geographic factor
affecting diffusion in agriculture innovations.
For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account, which includes:
• either an evidenced explanation of two or more geographic factors and links to rates of
diffusion in agriculture innovations
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts
and/or perspectives.
For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.
Question
The diagrams show the average daily consumption of calories per person.
* Rich and Poor countries according to FAO classification
Outline two changes in calorie consumption in poor countries from 1970 to 2000.[2]
Outline two differences between calorie consumption in rich countries and poor countries in 2000.[2]
Explain why food availability has increased in some areas of the world.[6]
Evaluate the sustainability of modern agricultural systems.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The diagrams show that total calorie consumption has increased [1 mark] and in particular more calories are derived from fats and protein, fewer calories from carbohydrates [1 mark]. Accept other valid changes.
Some quantification is required for full marks.
Total calorie consumption of rich countries is greater [1 mark] and carbohydrate consumption in poor countries is greater than in rich countries [1 mark]. Accept other valid changes.
Some quantification is required for full marks.
Food availability is dependent upon supplies from domestic production, commercial imports and donors. Food is available if it is in easy reach of consumers and this depends upon access as well as yield. The availability of food has been enhanced through technological progress and increasing agricultural knowledge, both of which have boosted production. Favourable taxing and tariff policies, trading and efficient transport systems have also allowed the effective movement of food from source to point consumption.
Answers which focus only upon food production should be awarded a maximum of 3 marks.
Most modern agricultural systems are designed to maximize production through economies of scale, the use of technology and agribusiness. These changes have increased yields, but often at an environmental and social cost. Environmental problems may include soil contamination, soil degradation, eutrophication of watercourses, increased atmospheric methane, energy subsidies, inhumane practices. Associated with this have been agricultural unemployment, outward migration from rural areas and rapid urban growth. Overexploitation of resources and environmental damage are consequences of modern agriculture, which are unsustainable. Some candidates may argue that some modern agricultural systems, including organic farming, have made agriculture more sustainable. Either approach is equally valid and can receive full marks.
Answers which identify, explain and evaluate the sustainability of agricultural practices may access bands E and F.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Question
(i) Outline what is meant by the term “diseases of affluence”.
(ii) Briefly describe the global distribution of diseases of affluence.[4]
Referring to one named water-borne or vector-borne disease, distinguish between policies relating to its prevention and policies relating to its treatment.[6]
Examine the effects of transnational corporations (TNCs) and fair trade on the level of sustainability of agriculture.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
(i)
Award [1] for each valid point from the following:
- mainly affect wealthier people
- due to longevity/sedentary lifestyle/diet/lifestyle choices
- or an example, eg cancer.
(ii)
Primarily economically wealthy countries [1], but also in some socio-economic groups within less wealthy countries [1].
Award maximum [3] if no specific disease named, or disease is not either water-borne or vector-borne, eg HIV/AIDS, Ebola.
Award maximum [4] if policies only relate to either prevention or treatment.
For example:
Malaria is a vector-borne disease, carried by mosquitoes [1].
Policies related to malaria prevention include: Award [1] each.
- removing/covering open bodies of still water (ponds, buckets, puddles)
- eradicating mosquitoes (spraying)
- encouraging use of bednets, preferably pre-sprayed with mosquito pesticide
- encouraging use of anti-malarial tablets.
Policies related to malaria treatment include: Award [1] each.
- ensuring rapid diagnosis (provision of laboratories, training of medical staff, including doctors) ensuring easy access to medical attention and medicines needed to treat malaria (healthcare systems, education, purchase of stockpiles of malarial medicines)
- establishing a national database of malarial patients so that they might be treated more effectively and appropriately.
The relationship between TNCs and sustainability is complex. While some TNCs probably increase agricultural sustainability, others probably decrease it. Equally, the actions of some TNCs probably have no effect on sustainability whatsoever.
An example of how sustainability might be increased is when TNCs introduce/adopt more efficient irrigation techniques (such as drip feed instead of flood irrigation) to grow crops. However, sustainability is only increased if the pumping of water for the new irrigation system does not involve using large amounts of additional energy coming from non-renewable sources.
On the other hand, TNCs that introduce GM herbicide-resistant crops may decrease sustainability. For example, some TNCs have patented or otherwise protected their rights to certain types of seed, meaning that farmers have to purchase new seed every year and are no longer allowed to use seed from a previous crop, as is normally done in conventional farming. This may be economically unsustainable, especially over the long term. In other cases, for example where the seed of some hybrid crops will not germinate and grow new crops, the changes brought by TNCs may be ecologically unsustainable.
The adoption of fair trade is designed to increase sustainability, especially the social and economic aspects of sustainability. The discussion of fair trade might extend into considering the sustainability of marketing and supply chains. This should not be penalized but is likely to be self-limiting given the wording of the question.
TNCs and fair trade are not always mutually exclusive. One example of an overlap between TNCs and fair trade is Starbucks coffee. The firm is a TNC, but it advertises and commercializes fair trade products.
Candidates are expected to show some awareness that the concept of sustainability has several strands, including economic, environmental and social. It is also likely that many candidates will refer to ways in which sustainability can be measured/assessed. The strongest responses are likely to include references to food miles and/or energy efficiency as measures of sustainability.
It is not necessary for TNCs and fair trade to be discussed in equal depth for the award of full marks. A strong, evidenced discussion of TNCs may well offset a weaker discussion of fair trade, or vice versa.
Responses at band D are likely to describe some ways in which TNCs and/or fair trade affect sustainability of agriculture.
At band E, expect either greater explanation of how TNCs and fair trade affect sustainability of agriculture or some explicit examination of what is meant by sustainable agriculture.
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
(i/ii) There were few problems with this. Relatively few candidates recognized that diseases of affluence can occur in less wealthy countries.
This was generally well answered. The question specifically required one named water-borne or vector-borne disease*; Ebola is neither, although some credit was given. Policies of prevention were often answered better than treatment. Unfortunately, some candidates wrote (erroneously) that there is a vaccination for malaria.
* The geography guide requires case studies of two diseases, chosen from two of the following three: vector-borne, water-borne, or sexually transmitted.
This question required an understanding of TNCs, fair trade and sustainability of agriculture. There were some very good, detailed responses, using examples. Others had an imperfect understanding of fair trade, confusing it with free trade. Many focused on environmental impacts and sustainability, with less consideration of social and economic aspects. Some recognized that TNCs and fair trade are not mutually exclusive.
Question
Briefly outline what is meant by the term “food security”.[2]
Outline one way in which the health of a population can be affected by chronic hunger.[2]
Explain three geographic impacts at a national scale of one named water-borne or sexually transmitted disease.[6]
To what extent were physical factors responsible for one recent famine?[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Food security involves four basic concepts. Award [1] for the description of each of the following concepts, up to a maximum of [2]:
- access to food
- sufficient amount
- safety
- nutritional quality/diet.
Award [1] for the problem identified and [1] for further development.
Possibilities include:
- long-term under-nutrition [1] resulting in stunting/body weight loss [1]
- increased vulnerability to disease [1] due to weaker immune system [1]
- high maternal/infant mortality [1] due to lack of nutritious food [1].
Award [1] for recognition of a geographic impact and [1] for further development.
For example, HIV has impacted upon Swaziland’s GDP due to lost working hours / lower productivity [1]. The HIV prevalence rate in Swaziland is around 30% [1].
Impacts might include:
- high death rates/infant mortality rates
- cost of health care
- decrease in tourism
- cost of prevention policies.
Response should apply to one or more countries. If no example at a national scale is given, award a maximum of [5].
A famine may be defined as a widespread shortage of food in a region that leads to malnutrition and hunger and results in increased mortality rates. Famine may be caused by a variety of physical and human factors.
Physical factors might include:
- severe drought, caused by climatic factors
- soil exhaustion, caused by poor farming practices
- crop pests and diseases
- natural hazards, such as major earthquake
- climate change/global warming.
Human factors might include:
- civil war/conflict/refugees
- government policies/corruption
- poor infrastructure
- widespread poverty / high food prices
- rapid population growth/population pressure
- failure of response by outside agencies.
Reference should be made to a recent famine, preferably no earlier than the 1990s. Responses that do not focus on a specific recent famine are unlikely to progress beyond band D.
Good answers might provide a structured evaluation of the causes of a recent famine, and arrive at a considered view of the extent to which physical or human factors might matter most. Another approach might be to show how the factors are interrelated and interact with each other.
For band D, expect some description of physical and/or human factors that have caused a recent famine.
At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of a range of physical and human factors (do not expect balance), or a structured evaluation of the extent to which particular factors (or the interrelationships between them) were responsible.
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 2 HL and SL markbands.