Question
Describe what is meant by a “sustainable city”.[4]
Explain three ways in which human activities can modify the microclimate of an urban area.[3×2]
Examine reasons why cities in some parts of the world have higher rates of population growth than others.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Answers could include the following elements:
A city that is designed to protect quality of life for its future generations [1 mark].
Award 3 marks for three of the following elements:
- city designed to minimize impact on environment
- inputs of energy, water, and other resources are minimized
- outputs (waste, air and water pollution) are minimized (possibly by recycling)
- effective transport infrastructure minimizes outputs
- smallest possible urban ecological footprint
- any other valid suggestion.
Microclimate can describe temperatures, wind speed, humidity, air quality and local rainfall regimes.
Answers could include the following:
- increased temperatures (including urban heat island effect) because of reduced albedo, direct heating by buildings, air conditioning etc.
- changes in wind speed and air flow because of buildings and street patterns
- changes in rainfall because of higher temperatures; increased amount of particulate pollution provide rainfall nuclei; greater convectional updraughts
- greater levels of air pollution (photochemical smog, particulates, NOX etc.)
- greater number of sources, for example, exhausts.
Award 1 mark for each basic modification explained and 1 mark for any extension or good example.
Maximum 3 marks if only one aspect of microclimate (for example, urban heat island) is explained but with three causes given.
Good answers are likely to focus on migration and natural increase also. Variations in the relative strength of urban pull factors and rural push factors should be discussed. Economic, cultural and political factors may feature in the discussion as influences of both migration and rates of increase.
Counter-urbanization and low birth rates are a cause of slower growth or even a decline in population in many cities in MEDCs.
Responses that focus simply on urban growth in one area should be limited to band D. Expect the inclusion of both migration and natural increase to access bands E/F.
While examples are not a specific requirement of the question, those answers that provide supporting examples are likely to access the higher markbands.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
Sustainability seems to be well understood and most candidates gave a good response – many referred to the Roger’s model and many provided annotated diagrams to illustrate it.
Surprisingly, overall, this was done quite poorly. Many referred to the greenhouse effect and there was considerable confusion over the causes of the urban heat island.
Some answers were excellent but many took an inappropriate scale (national population growth rather than urban) or did not consider natural increase as well as migration. The use of supporting examples made it easier for candidates to access higher markbands.
Question
The diagram shows two contrasting city systems.
Identify two possible additional inputs and two possible additional outputs for the linear system.[4]
Explain why the circular system has a reduced urban ecological footprint.[6]
Examine the dominant population movements and their consequences for one or more urban areas.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Inputs: water, land, timber, food. 1 mark for each. Do not credit “resources”.
Outputs: sewage/water waste, water pollution, industrial waste. 1 mark for each. Do not credit “waste”.
Accept other valid suggestions.
Credit understanding of “urban ecological footprint”, defined as the amount of land required [1 mark] to provide the resources the city needs [1 mark] and to dispose of waste produced by residents and businesses of the urban area [1 mark].
Specific ways of achieving this include:
- Circular system has reduced inputs and outputs, thus requiring less land to provide resources and to dispose of or mitigate waste products.
- Less energy is required to transport resources and waste materials.
- Increased recycling allows for reduction in both inputs and outputs.
There may be other valid responses.
Dominant population movements are likely to be either centrifugal or centripetal. These have a range of impacts on land use patterns and social, economic and environmental conditions in cities.
Centrifugal (moving out): suburbanization and counter-urbanization may cause increased urban sprawl and consumption of surrounding fertile land, increased journey times and therefore traffic congestion and associated pollution. The associated spiral of decline in central urban areas may be discussed – lack of investment in the physical environment including housing stock, loss of retail activity to meet customer location, in-migration of minority groups, increased unemployment and crime.
Centripetal (movement into the city and re-urbanization): caused by the “gravity” of the city. Consequences include rapidly increasing population and therefore demands for housing, services and resources including water. Housing needs met by unplanned settlement and overcrowding of existing housing stock. Pressure on services such as water, health, refuse disposal and education increases, leading to significant unmet demand. Despite these factors, migrants may experience increased opportunity and standard of living leading to permanence.
Responses could either focus on only one movement and its consequences or could contrast movements in different locations. Answers should refer to at least one specific example.
Responses that describe the dominant movement(s) and discuss a range of associated consequences are likely to reach bands E/F.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Examiners report
This was often poorly done at both levels and surprisingly few gained full marks.
Many answers did not make clear the relationship between a circular system and the ecological footprint due to weak understanding of the latter term.
Answers tended to be mediocre, with many weaker responses choosing to discuss only rural–urban migration and ignoring movements such as counter-urbanization, suburbanization and their impacts.
Question
State four main characteristics of a central business district (CBD).[4]
Explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization.[6]
Contrast the causes and effects of air pollution for two named urban areas.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Characteristics that can be outlined for [1 mark] each include:
- low residential population
- economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) found here
- at the centre of a settlement or at intersection of routes
- very high buildings especially at PLVI
- functional zoning of types of service
- vertical zoning eg offices above shops
- convenience shops at edges of CBD
- “Core and frame” structure
- evidence of zones of discard/assimilation
- high value pedestrian flows
- high traffic flows (or low if pedestrianized)
- there may be other valid points.
Gentrification
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- usually seen as a centripetal/inwards movement
- more affluent people move in, displacing less affluent people
- house prices rise/there are home improvements
- incomers are looking for cheap properties for renovation (and profit)
- other pull factors include: vibrancy/authentic city life/proximity to CBD/work (do not over-credit multiple pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- broader neighbourhood changes as affluence rises eg restaurants
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Counter-urbanization
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- a centrifugal/outwards movement
- moving to new town/out-of-town village/commuter town near edge of town (but do not credit suburbs/suburbanization)
- can also be beyond the commuting zone eg remote rural areas
- age-selective process associated with retired migrants
- also may involve young families with children
- migrants are drawn by “quality of life”/environment, etc or pushed by high prices, crime etc (do not over-credit multiple push-pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The most effective answers will be those that use properly contrasting examples such as two cities at contrasting levels of development (this approach is recommended in the guide, page 38).
Depending on the exact examples chosen, causes may include human factors (transport, industry, and domestic burning of coal, gas, paraffin) and physical factors (eg anti-cyclonic weather conditions).
The effects are likely to include impacts on health (impact of traffic in Mexico City), microclimate (lack of “blue sky days” in Beijing), biodiversity (decline of sensitive species eg lichen), weathering (especially of limestone buildings) and the costs for
tourism (clean-up of polluted buildings, or the cost of lost tourism eg Chinese cities in 2012–13).
Good opportunities for making a contrast may be found by highlighting the different roles played by physical factors, governance, stages of economic development etc that pertain to the two chosen studies.
For band D, candidates must describe some causes and effects of air pollution and make some reference to two examples (balance between all of these elements is not expected at this level).
Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of both causes and effects in both cities (with greater balance) or offer a more sustained and explicit contrast (but across a narrower range of ideas).
At band F, expect both elements.
Examiners report
Good understanding was shown on the characteristics of a CBD.
Surprisingly only a few candidates could explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization adequately to cover all the main points.
This question elicited some very weak responses. Most candidates could name two areas correctly but could not do justice to contrasting the causes and effects of air pollution. There were some general statements regarding air pollution but specific details were missing.
Question
State four main characteristics of a central business district (CBD).[4]
Explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization.[6]
Contrast the causes and effects of air pollution for two named urban areas.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Characteristics that can be outlined for [1 mark] each include:
- low residential population
- economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) found here
- at the centre of a settlement or at intersection of routes
- very high buildings especially at PLVI
- functional zoning of types of service
- vertical zoning eg offices above shops
- convenience shops at edges of CBD
- “Core and frame” structure
- evidence of zones of discard/assimilation
- high value pedestrian flows
- high traffic flows (or low if pedestrianized)
- there may be other valid points.
Gentrification
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- usually seen as a centripetal/inwards movement
- more affluent people move in, displacing less affluent people
- house prices rise/there are home improvements
- incomers are looking for cheap properties for renovation (and profit)
- other pull factors include: vibrancy/authentic city life/proximity to CBD/work (do not over-credit multiple pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- broader neighbourhood changes as affluence rises eg restaurants
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Counter-urbanization
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- a centrifugal/outwards movement
- moving to new town/out-of-town village/commuter town near edge of town (but do not credit suburbs/suburbanization)
- can also be beyond the commuting zone eg remote rural areas
- age-selective process associated with retired migrants
- also may involve young families with children
- migrants are drawn by “quality of life”/environment, etc or pushed by high prices, crime etc (do not over-credit multiple push-pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The most effective answers will be those that use properly contrasting examples such as two cities at contrasting levels of development (this approach is recommended in the guide, page 38).
Depending on the exact examples chosen, causes may include human factors (transport, industry, and domestic burning of coal, gas, paraffin) and physical factors (eg anti-cyclonic weather conditions).
The effects are likely to include impacts on health (impact of traffic in Mexico City), microclimate (lack of “blue sky days” in Beijing), biodiversity (decline of sensitive species eg lichen), weathering (especially of limestone buildings) and the costs for
tourism (clean-up of polluted buildings, or the cost of lost tourism eg Chinese cities in 2012–13).
Good opportunities for making a contrast may be found by highlighting the different roles played by physical factors, governance, stages of economic development etc that pertain to the two chosen studies.
For band D, candidates must describe some causes and effects of air pollution and make some reference to two examples (balance between all of these elements is not expected at this level).
Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of both causes and effects in both cities (with greater balance) or offer a more sustained and explicit contrast (but across a narrower range of ideas).
At band F, expect both elements.
Examiners report
Good understanding was shown on the characteristics of a CBD.
Surprisingly only a few candidates could explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization adequately to cover all the main points.
This question elicited some very weak responses. Most candidates could name two areas correctly but could not do justice to contrasting the causes and effects of air pollution. There were some general statements regarding air pollution but specific details were missing.