Question
Answer the following question.
Refer to the graph on page 5 of the accompanying resource booklet.
The graph shows the ten fastest growing cities in the world (2015–2020) and the number of new people added to each city per hour in 2020.
(a) (i) State which city in Africa grew the most between 2015 and 2020. [1]
(ii) Identify how many new people per hour were added to the city of Shanghai in 2020. [1]
(b) Outline one environmental problem caused by the rapid population increase of cities. [2]
(c) Explain why large cities continue to grow as a result of:
(i) one economic factor; [3]
(ii) one demographic factor. [3]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
(i) Kinshasa (DRC). (Do not accept DRC on its own).
(ii) 82
(b) Award [1] for the problem and [1] for development/explanation.
For example: Water polluted [1] by sewage due to the growth of shanty towns [1].
Other problems include, but are not limited to:
• loss of biodiversity/natural habitats
• air pollution from traffic
• human environmental problems e.g. overcrowding, stress, health issues, crime.
(c) (i) one economic factor; [3]
Award [1] for the factor and up to [2] for development/explanation.
For example: Higher wages/job opportunities in the city [1] so rural-urban
migration takes place [1] due to a desire for better standards of living [1].
Other factors include, but are not limited to:
• push factors from the countryside, such as high unemployment.
(ii) one demographic factor. [3]
Award [1] for the factor and up to [2] for development/explanation.
For example: Natural increase [1] due to large numbers of young people/youthful
population [1] so city grows outwards to provide housing [1].
Other factors include, but are not limited to:
• people are living longer due to better healthcare available.
Question
State four main characteristics of a central business district (CBD).[4]
Explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization.[6]
Contrast the causes and effects of air pollution for two named urban areas.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Characteristics that can be outlined for [1 mark] each include:
- low residential population
- economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) found here
- at the centre of a settlement or at intersection of routes
- very high buildings especially at PLVI
- functional zoning of types of service
- vertical zoning eg offices above shops
- convenience shops at edges of CBD
- “Core and frame” structure
- evidence of zones of discard/assimilation
- high value pedestrian flows
- high traffic flows (or low if pedestrianized)
- there may be other valid points.
Gentrification
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- usually seen as a centripetal/inwards movement
- more affluent people move in, displacing less affluent people
- house prices rise/there are home improvements
- incomers are looking for cheap properties for renovation (and profit)
- other pull factors include: vibrancy/authentic city life/proximity to CBD/work (do not over-credit multiple pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- broader neighbourhood changes as affluence rises eg restaurants
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Counter-urbanization
Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:
- a centrifugal/outwards movement
- moving to new town/out-of-town village/commuter town near edge of town (but do not credit suburbs/suburbanization)
- can also be beyond the commuting zone eg remote rural areas
- age-selective process associated with retired migrants
- also may involve young families with children
- migrants are drawn by “quality of life”/environment, etc or pushed by high prices, crime etc (do not over-credit multiple push-pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
- credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The most effective answers will be those that use properly contrasting examples such as two cities at contrasting levels of development (this approach is recommended in the guide, page 38).
Depending on the exact examples chosen, causes may include human factors (transport, industry, and domestic burning of coal, gas, paraffin) and physical factors (eg anti-cyclonic weather conditions).
The effects are likely to include impacts on health (impact of traffic in Mexico City), microclimate (lack of “blue sky days” in Beijing), biodiversity (decline of sensitive species eg lichen), weathering (especially of limestone buildings) and the costs for
tourism (clean-up of polluted buildings, or the cost of lost tourism eg Chinese cities in 2012–13).
Good opportunities for making a contrast may be found by highlighting the different roles played by physical factors, governance, stages of economic development etc that pertain to the two chosen studies.
For band D, candidates must describe some causes and effects of air pollution and make some reference to two examples (balance between all of these elements is not expected at this level).
Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of both causes and effects in both cities (with greater balance) or offer a more sustained and explicit contrast (but across a narrower range of ideas).
At band F, expect both elements.
Examiners report
Good understanding was shown on the characteristics of a CBD.
Surprisingly only a few candidates could explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization adequately to cover all the main points.
This question elicited some very weak responses. Most candidates could name two areas correctly but could not do justice to contrasting the causes and effects of air pollution. There were some general statements regarding air pollution but specific details were missing.
Question
(i) Define the term suburbanization.
(ii) Briefly outline two possible population changes in an urban area where suburbanization is occurring.[4]
Referring to one or more named cities, explain two ways in which humans affect urban air pollution.[6]
Examine the effects of the movement of services and manufacturing activities to new locations in cities.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
(i) Suburbanization is the outward growth of towns or cities [1] that leads to former villages or rural areas becoming urban [1], or the movement of people to the rural–urban fringe [1].
(ii) Award [1] for each outlined population change (either to suburban or other affected area):
- more people arrive in suburbs (newer housing)
- fewer people might be left in city centre
- lower density left in city centre
- older people in particular may move to (quieter) suburbs
- families in particular may move to (spacious) suburbs.
There are many other possibilities that can be credited.
Possible ways humans affect air pollution in urban areas include through transport emissions, burning of fossil fuels for energy production/domestic heating/commercial enterprises.
Equally, it is possible that human activities may reduce air pollution in urban areas, eg Beijing’s relocation of iron and steel plants before the 2008 Olympics, the use of park and rides, Clean Air Acts, etc.
In each case, award [1] either for the identification of a specific source of urban pollution in a named city or for a located pollution reduction strategy. In each case award up to [2] for the description and explanation of what the effect (positive or negative) has been.
Only award [2] in each case if no city named.
For example: In Los Angeles, vehicles release nitrogen oxides [1]. NOx react in sunlight to form ground level ozone [1]. High levels of ground-level ozone form photochemical smog pollution [1].
For example: In Paris 2014 the authorities introduced a policy to reduce the number of cars in the central area [1]. Cars with an odd-numbered number plate were allowed in certain days of the week whereas those with an even numbered-number plate were allowed in on the other days of the week [1]. This has reduced emissions of NOx, improving air quality [1].
(Vehicle pollution includes NOx, CO, particulates and hydrocarbons; NOT carbon dioxide.)
Responses could consider the movement of economic activities into cities in developing/emerging economies; or the relocation movement from central areas to out of town/edge of town locations for well-established cities. There are also redevelopments in inner urban areas and some central areas of older cities, as a result of regeneration schemes. The movement of services (accept retailing) and manufacturing to new locations can have many effects: environmental, economic and social.
Socio-economic effects could be discussed, for instance changes in employment and social class structure, and associated neighbourhood changes.
Negative environmental effects may include increase in impermeable surface, poorer air quality due to the volume of people traveling to the new location. Effects may be highly damaging in newly-industrializing areas eg Pearl River Delta.
On the other hand, new business developments in post-industrial cities increasingly include landscaping, creation of new environments and a more varied habitat. There may also be environmental impacts in the post-industrial area which industry has left – at first dereliction and visual pollution of the environment; then urban succession; but longer-term improvements/landscaping may also occur.
Good answers may do more than explain/list different, unconnected effects. They may additionally examine the interrelations or the timescale of different effects, for instance by showing how economic impacts and social effects are linked. Another approach might be to examine what the effects are for cities at different stages of development, or for areas gaining/losing activity.
At band D, expect a description of some effects of relocations, or new economic activities, within one or more recognizable cities/types of city.
At band E, there should be either an explanation of a wider range of effects/movements or some critical examination of how cities/places/people are affected.
At band F, expect both.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Question
Explain two strengths and one weakness of one named city’s attempt to reduce urban pollution.[6]
Examine the effects of the movement of economic activity to derelict land such as brownfield sites.[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Award [1] for each strength/weakness and a [1] for further development/exemplification of each.
Responses may focus on air pollution but could also focus on water, soil, noise pollution, or waste and litter problems in urban areas.
In awarding marks – there is no mark for the strategy (eg planting trees), but [1] for each strength/weakness and [1] for development.
For example: Strength: In Beijing the planting of trees has reduced pollution by intercepting dust [1] and provided shade for cyclists [1].
Weakness: Replacing buses and old taxis was expensive [1] and there were economic losses when factories were closed [1].
Other strategies may include:
• public transport
• bus lanes
• cycle lanes
• subsidies for public transport
• mass transport schemes.
Award maximum [4] if no city named.
Economic activity includes retailing, services and manufacturing. This includes new economic activity and relocated economic activity.
Derelict sites and brownfield sites include abandoned and under-used industrial buildings and land that may be contaminated but has potential for redevelopment.
The movement of economic activity to derelict land may have many positive effects, such as job creation, investment in infrastructure, new buildings and services, increased tax base and spending in the local area (positive multiplier
effect), in-migration of wealthy, young people (gentrification), etc.
Negative impacts include an increase in congestion and pollution related to construction (short-term), increasing land prices, increasing social inequalities, cost of cleaning contaminated land/making it safe for use for economic activity.
Good answers will show an understanding that there are positive and negative impacts occurring. Some developments may be large-scale (eg London 2012 Olympic Site) while others are small-scale (gentrification in Woodstock, Cape Town). Some impacts may be short-term, others long-term. The overall effects may depend on the city involved, the amount of government investment, the amount of private investment, its accessibility, the type of economic activity.
At band D, expect a description of some effects of the movement of economic activity to derelict land/ brownfield sites.
At band E, expect either a detailed explanation of the movement of economic activity to derelict land/ brownfield sites or a structured examination of different kinds of impact (may include different perspectives) and any interrelations between them.
At band F, expect both of these elements.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Question
Suggest two reasons for the occurrence of low-cost housing areas within cities.[6]
Evaluate the success of one or more strategies to control rapid city growth resulting from in-migration[10]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Reasons could include:
- migrants are often unemployed with little disposable income
- some areas suffer deprivation and are avoided by wealthy people
- authorities may build/provide social housing
- areas of older housing may be in poor condition and used as low-cost housing.
Award [1] for the identification of a valid factor that influences and [2] for further development/exemplification.
For example: In Rio de Janeiro [1], there is a large influx of migrants from smaller cities and rural areas [1] and it is impossible to provide adequate housing for all the population [1].
Rapid urban growth is a phenomenon that is present in many parts of the world, notably NICs and low-income countries. The advantages of city growth for migration include the supply of qualified workers, attractions for investors and the resulting multiplier effect. Rapid population growth may lead to scarcity of housing, employment and access to facilities.
Governments may try to limit in-migration through a variety of strategies, including quotas/work permits, the creation of new capital cities/new cities/new towns/expanded towns/greenbelts and rural development schemes. Successful strategies tend to be in cities (such as Mexico City) in which government investment or financial incentives have encouraged people to move to other areas in the country.
Others have had less success, eg despite Egypt’s new town programme, the growth of Cairo has not been reduced, and despite China’s hukou system, rapid city growth has continued. Nevertheless, in many countries, rates of urbanization are tailing off.
Good answers may recognize that in-migration is both a cause and an effect of rapid city growth, and may be seen in a positive light. It may also be seen in a negative way, and so controls are needed. Good candidates may recognize that controls can operate at a variety of scales, eg urban (limit cities to a certain size, then have new towns/cities projects), rural (keep people working in the countryside), international (control the number of overseas migrants) and national (redevelop urban areas in other parts of the country). Answers may also discuss
attempts to balance/manage city growth.
NB. Do not accept responses that look at the effects of rapid city growth or those that look at strategies to deal with rapid city growth.
At band D, expect a description of one or more strategies to control growth from rapid in-migration.
At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of strategies to control in-migration, or a structured evaluation of the success of strategies to control rapid city growth.
For band F, expect both of these elements.
Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.