Question
Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.[10]
“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.
Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).
Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.
For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.
To access band D, expect:
- either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
- or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.
At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].
Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].
The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.
Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.
For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.
To access band D, expect:
- either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
- or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.[10]
Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.
Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India).
Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.
Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.
Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).
At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.
For band E, expect both.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.
Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:
- well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
- foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
- levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
- the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
- poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
- poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].
A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:
- there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
- scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
- the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
- the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
- there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.
At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.
Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.
At band E, expect both.
Examiners report
While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond “building a factory”. The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.
The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.
Question
Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.[10]
Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.
Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India).
Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.
Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.
Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).
At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.
For band E, expect both.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.
Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:
- well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
- foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
- levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
- the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
- poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
- poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].
A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:
- there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
- scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
- the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
- the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
- there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.
At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.
Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.
At band E, expect both.
Examiners report
While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond “building a factory”. The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.
The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.
Question
Explain why it might be hard to observe and measure some types of global interaction.[10]
“Global interactions have brought only negative impacts to human landscapes and physical environments everywhere.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The focus should be the challenge of collecting the data, rather than querying whether it should be included/used as a legitimate measure of global interactions/globalization. Many candidates, even at the band C/D border, may provide a general critique of the KOF/Kearney index, much of which is of marginal relevance to this particular question. These will need reading carefully for
references to the difficulties in collecting/measuring/observing global interactions.
Expect candidates to show some familiarity with the Kearney and/or the KOF multi strand indexes of globalization. These compartmentalize globalization in terms of personal, economic, political aspects, etc. Some may correctly answer this question by focusing on those strands of Kearney/KOF that are hard/subjective to observe, or monitor – for instance, KOF’s “cultural proximity” measure.
The focus should be on explaining why it is hard observe some movements (such as the diffusion of cultural traits) and/or measuring/quantifying them. Possible themes:
- informal remittances from legal and illegal migrants are hidden
- unknown content of private information/data exchange
- criminal/illegal flows (trafficking of people and drugs) are not recorded
- TNCs may hide the movement of profits through tax havens (transfer pricing)
- complexities of tracking economic data/trade figures hence possible inaccuracy
- people may be watching “local” or “global” TV and other media, it is hard to tell.
Band C answers should describe difficulties associated with the collection of data for at least two types of global interaction (eg data flows, migration).
At band D, expect either a wider, more detailed range of data collection difficulties or some explicit analysis of the distinction between observation and measurement.
For band E, expect both.
Some candidates may discuss “the positive and negative impacts of human activity for physical and human geography” (ie a far broader focus than the given title). Whilst benefit of doubt should be given where deserved, note that some impacts, are
not necessarily a product of global interactions (Chernobyl), nor are all impacts of farming. Good candidates will stress the global dimensions of the case studies they use. Human impacts should relate to the landscape (so impacts such as “poverty alleviation” ideally need some link with a landscape change, such as housing improvement). Changes in ethnicity/language are perfectly valid as they form part of the cultural landscape. Accounts of global warming should be judged on their merits.
Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:
- there has been some homogenization of urban landscapes (uniform appearances, common activities, styles of construction, skyscrapers) [Guide 4]
- there are many physical themes that could be addressed, including degradation of the rainforest due to global demand eg, for soya, soil degradation (should be linked with global agribusiness), climate change (should be linked with international consumption of resources), transboundary pollution [Guide 4].
Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:
- global/local efforts for the protection of cultural landscapes eg, UNESCO sites or the resurgence of nationalism in relation to the protection of the built environment [Guide 6, Guide 7]
- global civil society organizations/NGOs have fostered environmental awareness [Guide 4].
A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:
- not all countries participate in global interactions to the same extent so effects are highly variable in any case [Guide 1]
- different perspectives exist on what constitutes “negative” in relation to cultural landscapes (though there will be broader agreement on what constitutes a negative or positive impact on the physical environment).
For band C, some impacts to human landscapes and physical environments should be described (do not expect balance) and linked with global interactions.
Band D should either provide a wider, evidenced discussion of both impacts (do not expect perfect balance) or offer a more critical discussion of the statement, perhaps querying what is meant by “everywhere” or “negative”.
At band E, expect both.
Examiners report
In a previous exam paper, candidates were asked to explain how global interactions are measured. It was therefore appropriate to ask for a different approach to be taken with this latest question. Candidates were asked to focus their thoughts on why attempts at quantifying global interactions might not be successful. A helpful steer was given with the words “observe” and “measure”, which provided two avenues for candidates to explore. Good answers thoughtfully considered how hard it might be to record certain types of illegal and legal global flows. Some candidates recognized that many types of data might be inaccurate and hard to measure reliably. A few thoughtful responses even focused on whether it is possible to track the transmission of ideas, trends or beliefs as they spread around the planet. Sadly, too many candidates reproduced a prepared response to a slightly different kind of critique and focused instead on the legitimacy of investigating certain types of global interaction. In such cases, one popular theme was a country’s involvement with UN peacekeeping missions. Certainly, the legitimacy of using this as a proxy indictor of a country’s level of globalization is open to question. However, it was not appropriate to do so as part of an answer to this particular question, given that peacekeeping missions can be observed and counted.
Good answers were seen which offered a synthetic range of both physical and human transformations, some negative but others positive. The best answers demonstrated good technique, by balancing the four corners of their answer well (physical – positive; physical – negative; human – positive; human – negative). A few even queried whether human changes could be categorized as positive or negative given that “beauty is in the eye of the beholder” (especially in relation to the global spread of eye-catching modernist architecture). Weaker answers typically failed to provide balance, or did not focus very well on the role of global interactions. Instead, such candidates wrote a much broader, unfocused answer that looked at the impacts of different societies on the environment.
Question
Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.[10]
“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]
Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).
For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).
At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.
By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.
Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.
Possible themes include:
- economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
- cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
- isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
- the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
- branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].
Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).
For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Examiners report
Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.
A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.
Question
Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.[10]
To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as “local” places within a global context.
Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).
There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.
Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.
For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.
At band E, expect all of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).
Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).
Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:
- growth of core regions [Guide 1]
- growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
- ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
- agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
- environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
- food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
- globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
- de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
- some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].
Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.[10]
Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.
The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.
However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:
- the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
- largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
- IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
- free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.
Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.
For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.
The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).
Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:
- active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
- shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
- many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
- key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
- growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
- roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
- global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
- poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].
Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse the increasing uniformity of many of the world’s urban landscapes.[10]
“Geographical differences in wealth are increasing, not decreasing.” Using examples, discuss this statement.[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The focus is the character of the urban landscape, not city size.
“Uniformity” might relate to increased homogeneity of appearance, the growth of branded “commodityscapes” (clone towns), the trend towards a “global language” of modern architecture (“technoscapes”), the recurrence of some global diaspora groups in multiple world cities (eg, Chinatowns). The concept of landscape could also encompass the associated concept of soundscape (common music and languages that are heard in many places) and the ubiquity of English or Spanish words and brand names in advertising and public spaces in world cities and airports.
The analysis should go beyond mere description to offer some analysis of why this is happening (this might encompass the power of TNCs, superpower states such as the USA, the influential role of some architects).
Good answers may analyse the category of “urban landscapes” and might distinguish, using the concept of scale, between megacities, world cities and smaller towns. Another approach would be to analyse a trend towards uniformity in some – but not all – respects. There are many “mixed” urban landscapes, like London and Paris, which retain heritage alongside new technoscapes (in contrast to some cities, such as Doha and Dubai, which lack the same mix).
Do not over-credit answers which compare the size, function and sustainability of cities unless there is some clear reference to the taught elements of the paper three course which deal with landscape characteristics.
For band C (4-6 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of one or two ways in which recognizable place(s) are becoming increasingly uniform (eg branded logos).
For band D (7-8 marks), expect
- either a more detailed and well-exemplified analysis of the increased uniformity of urban landscapes
- or an analysis that contains explanatory elements (such as the power of planners and corporations, or demands of consumers).
For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.
[10 marks]
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on wealth differences. The question presents the view that these are increasing between places, but also requires consideration of an opposing view (that they are decreasing). Both should be addressed with appropriate supporting evidence. The economic development of BRICs/semi-periphery nations might be contrasted with the struggles that still prevail in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.
Possible themes from the geography guide include:
- changes in the global core and periphery system/pattern [Guide 2]
- financial flows/relationships such as remittances/aid/SAPs/outsourcing, and their varied effects on people and places [Guide 3]
- the role of financial institutions (IMF, WTO) [Guide 3]
- multi-governmental organizations and the way they both ameliorate and accentuate disparities through trade agreements (and, in the case of the EU, through migration) [Guide 6]
- political isolationism and the effect of this on disparities [Guide 7]
- various reactions against global interactions and their economic impacts (for instance, local sourcing of food is not in the immediate economic interest of farmers in distant countries) [Guide 7].
Good answers are likely to discuss the geographic scale of the differences. Differences have grown within some countries like India and China at the same time as the global development gap between India/China and high-income nations has narrowed. Good answers may also discuss the ongoing (or perhaps even increasing) exploitation of workers, women or other social groups within countries that are showing progress, in terms of wealth/GDP/GNI, when measured at the national/aggregate level.
For band C (5-8 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9-12 marks), expect
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.
[15 marks]
Question
Explain why the increasing needs of some countries for one or more raw materials are a cause of environmental concern.[10]
“People living in the world’s most peripheral regions do not experience a ‘shrinking world’.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 Indicative content
Raw material(s) can include timber, copper, soya, oil, shale gas etc.
An account focused only on water should not progress beyond [6].
- The environmental concerns should clearly relate to the raw material chosen.
- There may be local and global dimensions (deforestation causing local degradation in addition to rising global carbon emissions).
- The countries/markets for the raw material can be identified.
Good answers may explain explicitly why there is concern over the increasing demand made by certain countries and may provide evidence to support this (eg China’s predicted growth in demand). Another approach might be to structure the explanation carefully around different categories of environmental concern.
For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either environmental problems/concerns linked with using raw material(s) or the needs of some countries.
For band D (7–8), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
- either detailed environmental concerns linked with raw material(s) use/demand
- or the increasing resource needs for specified countries.
For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content
Peripheral regions: this is a contested term and is open to a variety of interpretations, ranging from isolated tribes, to landlocked African nations, to India and China (in relation to the G7/8 global “core”). Credit the “political periphery” of North Korea also. Each approach should be judged on its merits in terms of supporting evidence and argument.
Shrinking world: this refers to the way distant places are perceived to be nearer due to falling transport times and the instantaneous nature of electronic communications and data transfers.
Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:
- Even peripheral places are connected to global/regional internet/mobile networks.
- Peripheral places are connected to the core via flows of aid (including internet donations following disasters).
- The global spread of consumerism affects even peripheral places through the
availability of imported food and goods. - Media corporations have fostered widespread consumption of films and TV.
- Peripheral societies are visited by tourists.
- Exposure to global movements of pollution/waste may foster the sense of a shrinking world.
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:
- might be structured around different strands of the shrinking world effect, eg use of transport, arrival of tourists, exposure to information flows
- might reflect critically on what is meant by “most peripheral”, who lives there, and the extent to which different groups of people in peripheral areas have differing experiences/perspectives on a shrinking world
- might reflect on the extent to which the world’s poor are sometimes compelled to travel as refugees or economic migrants, often considerable distances; while poor places are visited by representatives of the wealthy (charities, agencies), which provides some sense of “shrinking world” to both parties.
For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant
shrinking world/globalization themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12), expect
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.
Question
In a global context, analyse what is meant by “core areas” and “peripheries”.[10]
“Globalization involves the imposition of Western culture on the entire world.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?[15]
▶️Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
In a global context, “core areas” can mean developed countries (eg G7/8 nations) while “peripheries” include a larger number of states at varying levels of economic development and with varying involvement in global interactions.
- The core and periphery are interdependent geographical entities that form a system and are linked/connected with one another in varied ways.
- Links/flows/connections include global/international movements of people, money, ideas, goods and resources.
- In the past, a simple core–periphery system existed, that is, “MEDCs and LEDCs” or “the global north and south”. However, the emergence of a semi-periphery (NICs / emerging economies / BRICs) has made the system more complex.
- One view is that countries can ‘advance’ over time from periphery to semi-periphery and eventually gain core status (eg South Korea); another view is that the core actively reproduces the poverty of the periphery.
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to use the concept of scale to inform the analysis, eg there may be recognition that some world cities/megacities (eg Lagos) are global hubs (cores) despite belonging to “peripheral” countries (eg Nigeria). Another approach might be to analyse the way countries like China and India could be seen as “core” countries when viewed from a peripheral sub-Saharan African perspective.
Answers dealing only with national-scale core–periphery patterns (cities and rural regions within a country) are unlikely to reach band C but should be marked positively if the work shows understanding of core–periphery relationships (AO1) and is well structured (AO4).
For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a basic global core–periphery pattern.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:
- either a range of global core–periphery criteria and linkages/connections
- or more varied global core–periphery patterns/scales/perspectives.
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus here is “Western culture”, which is a debatable concept in itself (expect some definition to be provided in a good answer). The merit of the answer is likely to depend on the variety of different cultural traits and contexts that are examined, and also the quality of any counter-arguments (eg many may argue “imposition” is the wrong word; fewer may also argue that non-Western cultural influences have spread globally too).
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
- telecommunication network growth (and thus cultural diffusion) [Guide 2]
- issues of landscape homogenization [Guide 4]
- cultural diffusion linked with flows of people and commodities [Guide 5]
- the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5]
- TNCs, glocalization and the adaption, not adoption, of culture [Guide 5]
- the concept of cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
- anti-globalization movements (focused on culture) [Guide 5]
- isolated groups/states unaffected by Western/other influences [Guide 7]
- diaspora groups in Western states which do not embrace Western culture [Guide 5].
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement, for example by evaluating the extent to which the adoption of Western culture is voluntary or forced. Another approach might be to examine the difference between broader “Western culture” and the narrower concept of “Americanization” (linked with a single superpower, the USA). Another approach might be to counter-argue the statement by evaluating the growing “imposition” of non-Western cultures on a global scale, eg Japanese, Indian, Chinese influences, or global movements linked with religion. Another approach might be to examine the extent to which culture is adapted/hybridized in local contexts, rather than simply “imposed”.
Polarized answers that deal only with Westernized and “non-Westernized” isolated states/people (N Korea or the Amish people) are unlikely to meet the critical evaluation criterion (which is required for band E).
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes (relating to culture) from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.