Question
Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.[10]
“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:
- changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
- fashion (linked with global media corporations)
- music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).
The key factors that can be explained include:
- the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
- the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
- the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).
Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).
For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.
At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.
By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.
Possible themes include:
- MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
- cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
- the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
- migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
- government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
- transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
- government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
- military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].
Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).
For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Examiners report
The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.
This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.
Question
Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).[10]
“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.
Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:
- cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
- low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
- local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).
These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.
Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).
For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.
At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.
By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).
Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).
Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:
- migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
- homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
- tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
- cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
- global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
- nationalist movements [Guide 6]
- isolationism [Guide 7].
Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.
For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Examiners report
Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.
The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.
Question
Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.[10]
To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as “local” places within a global context.
Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).
There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.
Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.
For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.
At band E, expect all of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).
Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).
Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:
- growth of core regions [Guide 1]
- growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
- ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
- agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
- environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
- food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
- globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
- de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
- some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].
Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.[10]
Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.
The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.
However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:
- the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
- largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
- IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
- free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.
Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.
For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.
For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.
The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).
Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:
- active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
- shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
- many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
- key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
- growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
- roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
- global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
- poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].
Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.
For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.
At band E, expect both of these elements.
Question
Analyse how increased internet use has affected different global financial flows.[10]
Examine the growing need for environmental management at a global scale.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Analyse how increased internet use has affected different global financial flows.
Credit discussion of internet, broadband, email, television/radio (on demand). Also credit mobile phone uptake / network growth Candidates may write in depth about a single case study of network growth over time. This could obtain full marks provided the effect on a range of financial flows is analysed in sufficient depth and detail.
• The internet also plays a role in enabling/accelerating a range of economic interactions and financial flows as part of the “shrinking world” effect.
• These include peer to peer payments such as: migrant remittances; purchases using mobile phone credit systems eg M-Pesa in Kenya (do not expect candidates to fully distinguish between smartphones and mobiles); international aid and charity donations eg Philippines 2013; crowd-sourced financing; online shopping (Amazon, eBay, airline tickets etc); financial transactions including share dealing. Credit ideas about outsourcing provided some effect of internet use on financial flows is suggested (for instance, use of outsourcing may require companies to transfer funds to suppliers; or may enhance profitability of firm; or may involve customers making a financial transaction).
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to systematically analyse a wide range of financial flows in a well-evidenced way. Another approach might be to analyse how financial flows in some localities are not affected, despite global growth in internet use, due to cost / prohibition / lack of access / other reasons.
For band C (4–6 marks), expect either some weakly-evidenced outlining of internet use in one or two local contexts or brief listing of some financial flows and economic impacts linked with internet use.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either a more detailed analysis of the increase in internet use over time, and its effect on two financial flows
• or a broader analysis of the effects of internet use on a wider range of financial flows (perhaps in different places).
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Examine the growing need for environmental management at a global scale.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Any aspect of environmental management can be discussed: likely themes for discussion include “global commons” such as the atmosphere, tropical rainforest biome and the oceans. An account of the dangers posed by degradation/depletion of these resources is to be expected, thereby demonstrating the need for action. A detailed range of global or international environmental issues/problems is sufficient to reach band D, even if little is said about management (other than asserting that it is needed).
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• the need for climate change governance, possibly linked with issues such as the growth of food miles (air freight) [Guide 4] or the growth of polluting transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• growing environmental awareness fostered via NGOs (eg Greenpeace); hence, civil society concerns suggest a growing need for management/action [Guide 4]
• the political (inter-governmental) response to transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• EU environmental rules can be considered as “global” scale action [Guide 6]
• some candidates may discuss the need for global action to prevent loss of tropical rainforest (linked with timber resource use) [Guide 4]
• calls for the regulation of global agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• commercial need for branded commodities to adopt “green credentials” [Guide 5]
• credit material dealing with the built environment / cultural environment (such as attempts to preserve architecture, language or other cultural traits).
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which discusses why isolated actions taken by individual countries may have limited effectiveness, and global-scale action is required. Another approach might be to discuss why problems such as transboundary movements become complex and require action to be taken at a global/regional scale by many different countries working in tandem together. Another approach might be to systematically discuss different aspects of environmental management and the global conventions, protocol and agreements which relate to them.
Do not over-credit examples of local management of environmental problems (eg local ecotourism or local recycling) unless there is a “think global act local” link.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Examiners report
This popular question was well answered in the majority of cases. Candidates analysed the statement using case studies of financial flows, augmented often with their own personal knowledge of online purchasing, crowdfunding and trading. The best answers used evidence well and were focused fully on financial flows. Electronic transfers of remittances and donations for disaster victims were written about widely. There was widespread analysis too of out-sourcing investment into Bangalore and the role the internet plays supporting FDI (foreign direct investment) strategies by TNCs. Wherever possible, credit was awarded for work which focused on legitimate financial flows that have undoubtedly been enhanced by ICT. Some thoughtful answers analysed ways in which financial flows had been affected other than their volume and rapidity. Illegal (bank account hacking) and informal (peer-to-peer transfers) financial flows featured in some answers. So too did complex financial flows, such as transfer pricing by TNCs.
This question generated a great many mediocre responses which ‘patched’ together a series of environmental vignettes before asserting that better management is required. Climate change, oceanic pollution and global biodiversity loss were popular themes which suited the question context well. Better answers tended to acknowledge steps already taken towards improved global governance (COP21, for instance) before arguing that even more must be done. Weaker responses were less selective in their choice of examples, typically involving fact-rich case studies of relatively localized issues. This meant there was not a compelling case for global management, merely better local management. The Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents were often used in this way. Candidates explained what had happened and then asserted that there is a need for power stations to be ‘managed globally’.
Question
Explain why the increasing needs of some countries for one or more raw materials are a cause of environmental concern.[10]
“People living in the world’s most peripheral regions do not experience a ‘shrinking world’.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 Indicative content
Raw material(s) can include timber, copper, soya, oil, shale gas etc.
An account focused only on water should not progress beyond [6].
- The environmental concerns should clearly relate to the raw material chosen.
- There may be local and global dimensions (deforestation causing local degradation in addition to rising global carbon emissions).
- The countries/markets for the raw material can be identified.
Good answers may explain explicitly why there is concern over the increasing demand made by certain countries and may provide evidence to support this (eg China’s predicted growth in demand). Another approach might be to structure the explanation carefully around different categories of environmental concern.
For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either environmental problems/concerns linked with using raw material(s) or the needs of some countries.
For band D (7–8), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
- either detailed environmental concerns linked with raw material(s) use/demand
- or the increasing resource needs for specified countries.
For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content
Peripheral regions: this is a contested term and is open to a variety of interpretations, ranging from isolated tribes, to landlocked African nations, to India and China (in relation to the G7/8 global “core”). Credit the “political periphery” of North Korea also. Each approach should be judged on its merits in terms of supporting evidence and argument.
Shrinking world: this refers to the way distant places are perceived to be nearer due to falling transport times and the instantaneous nature of electronic communications and data transfers.
Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:
- Even peripheral places are connected to global/regional internet/mobile networks.
- Peripheral places are connected to the core via flows of aid (including internet donations following disasters).
- The global spread of consumerism affects even peripheral places through the
availability of imported food and goods. - Media corporations have fostered widespread consumption of films and TV.
- Peripheral societies are visited by tourists.
- Exposure to global movements of pollution/waste may foster the sense of a shrinking world.
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:
- might be structured around different strands of the shrinking world effect, eg use of transport, arrival of tourists, exposure to information flows
- might reflect critically on what is meant by “most peripheral”, who lives there, and the extent to which different groups of people in peripheral areas have differing experiences/perspectives on a shrinking world
- might reflect on the extent to which the world’s poor are sometimes compelled to travel as refugees or economic migrants, often considerable distances; while poor places are visited by representatives of the wealthy (charities, agencies), which provides some sense of “shrinking world” to both parties.
For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant
shrinking world/globalization themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12), expect
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.
Question
Using examples, analyse the role of global interactions in the growth of environmental awareness.[10]
Discuss the reasons for the global diffusion of consumer culture.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 indicative content:
- Relevant global interactions may include flows of data and information, such as internet campaigning by civil society organizations. Also credit other types of interaction playing a role, including migrants or tourists who help awareness of issues to diffuse to new places.
- Campaigning may be linked to specific issues, such as transboundary pollution. Environmental awareness is a blanket term covering many issues. Other examples could include global climate change, biodiversity, deforestation, etc.
- Credit the idea that global interactions/globalisation/global development has given rise to environmental challenges (climate change, resource security) and that people are now aware of these issues.
Good answers might offer a structured (AO4) analysis of different types of global interaction (information, commodity flows) or different environmental causes (climate change, biodiversity). Another approach might be to analyse rising environmental awareness in specific contexts, eg the diffusion of environmental awareness to
people in different or new contexts (new consumers in emerging economies).
For band C (4–6 marks), an example of the growth of environmental awareness (such as an NGO campaign or film) will be be outlined and linked weakly with global interactions (such as ICT use, or the global trade flows which cause the issues).
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:
- either the role of a range of global interactions (such as data flows and trade flows)
- or two detailed examples of the growth of environmental awareness/ campaigns.
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Consumer culture can be understood as a lifestyle in capitalist societies wherein the consumption of goods and services occupies a central role, in terms of people’s use of leisure time, aspirations, and even their personal identity construction. It is sometimes associated negatively with unsustainable/“throwaway” use of commodities/resources. It can also be associated positively with the progression of people beyond poverty and into the consumer classes. Global diffusion patterns include the growth of consumer classes in emerging economies.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content:
- shrinking world technologies and the global diffusion of media/aspirations [Guide 3]
- financial flows from core to periphery regions [Guide 2]
- poverty alleviation, financial flows and the growth of new markets [Guide 3]
- branded commodities and the power of TNCs to build markets [Guide 5]
- migration, tourism and population movements [Guide 3, 5].
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation might:
- critically discuss the relative importance of different reasons/global interactions which either aid diffusion of cultural traits or help to build incomes/markets
- discuss different traits of consumer culture, such as the diffusion of music, fast food, branded commodities, etc
- distinguish between the means of diffusion (eg TNCs) and the reasons why people are receptive to the arrival of “global culture” (eg state policies).
Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of places/countries where consumer culture has not diffused to / has been blocked, such as North Korea. However, some AO3 credit could be awarded for briefly drawing a contrast between liberal states and non-liberal states (such as North Korea) in order to demonstrate the high importance of liberal government as a reason for cultural diffusion.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant reasons/themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes/reasons from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Question
Analyse the causes and environmental consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries.[10]
“Barriers to globalization are no longer falling but are rising instead.” Discuss this statement.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
AO1/2 indicative content:
- The international relocation of polluting industries refers primarily to the global shift of manufacturing from the developed to the developing world; also credit the increased uptake of outsourcing contracts by manufacturers in lower-wage economies.
- The main cause is avoidance of high labour and land costs, and “red tape” in developed countries; but the movement may also be market-driven if new industries are being established in proximity to emerging markets. Another theme might be international movements of recycling industries (and linked flows of e-waste).
- The consequences for people and places vary according to context. They may include impacts on the atmosphere/hydrosphere/biosphere, and short- or long-term health costs for societies.
Good answers may make use of detailed exemplification and/or specialist terminology. Or they may analyse the varied types of cause and environmental consequence, perhaps for different categories of polluting industry, in a well-structured (AO4) way. Another approach might be to analyse some of the temporal (long-term) and spatial (pattern) dimensions of the consequences.
Band D credit may be given for the use of any case studies which illustrate changing global patterns of economic activity – including inward investment, outsourcing, and refuse flows – provided that the causes are relevant and the consequences are environmental (rather than social).
For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a narrow range of causes and/or environmental consequences of changing global patterns of economic activity.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced and balanced analysis which includes:
- either varied and detailed causes of changing global patterns of economic activity
- or detailed environmental consequences of international industrial relocation.
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Globalization is defined in the subject guide. Real barriers include border controls and walls (political barriers) and virtual firewalls (technological barriers). There are also the real or perceived cultural barriers of language and religion. The concept of a “barrier” is broad and may be interpreted in many ways and from different perspectives.
Possible AO1/2 indicative content:
- falling barriers for data: the shrinking world and time–space convergence [Guide 2]
- falling barriers due to cultural exchange, diaspora growth [Guide 5]
- falling barriers due to the global diffusion of branded commodities [Guide 5]
- increasing barriers for international migration (barriers and/or policies) [Guide 3, 5]
- increasing barriers as governments react to the real or perceived loss of sovereignty through retreat from multigovernmental organizations or increased protectionism [Guide 6, 3]
- isolated societies for whom barriers neither rise nor fall [Guide 7].
Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:
- might offer a structured discussion of different categories of barrier
- might systematically discuss both sides of the argument before arriving at a judgement that progresses beyond simply concluding the statement is both true and false (one approach could be to argue that the statement is more true for some types of global interaction than it is for others)
- might address the truth of the statement on different timescales (eg taking a long view rather than focusing on more recent events only).
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide focused on whether or not there are barriers to globalization.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
- or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Question
Using one or more examples, analyse the geographic challenges associated with transboundary pollution.[10]
Examine how disparities between countries give rise to different global flows.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
Transboundary pollution has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse an “event”, such as a major oil spill, or a pervasive air pollution event or period of acid rain (which could last for many months or even years – an example being NW Europe in the 1970s and 1980s). Whatever examples are used, it should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”.
- “Geographic challenges” includes the consequences of the pollution, such as immediate human, ecological and environmental impacts.
- There are also longer clear-up operations and challenges to consider.
- Also, there is the challenge of achieving effective regulation / prevention with pollution management strategies, including global governance of the issue(s).
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse different categories of geographic challenge eg economic, political and environmental or short and long term. Another approach might be to compare issues for countries closer to the pollution source with issues for countries further away. Another approach might be to analyse the challenges of preventing future pollution given the physical processes involved eg atmospheric circulation. Another approach might be to analyse how the geographic challenges differ according to the scale of the problem and the number of states and stakeholders that are affected.
Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well-analysed (idea of TNCs moving their pollution / unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (though not transboundary, some limited credit for the transnational aspects of the case study could be given). Accounts of carbon emissions and climate change should also be treated like this.
For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the effects of transboundary/transnational pollution in one or more contexts.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:
- either one or more detailed examples of the consequences of actual transboundary pollution
- or different types of geographic challenge (eg near & far challenges, short and long-term challenges or economic and governance challenges).
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
The focus is on disparities between countries or different global groups of countries: these may include economic, social, political or other disparities. The question suggests that disparities give rise to multiple flows. These range from financial flows to migration and the movement of ideas and information.
Better answers will maintain a focus on flows eg FDI, remittances; weaker answer may at times become more descriptive of the actions or impacts of different stakeholders/actors eg TNCs (and flows may be implied rather than explicitly examined).
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
- labour/migration flows [Guide 3]
- financial flows, eg remittances/aid/loans [Guide 3]
- investments by global institutions such as the IMF [Guide 3]
- raw material flows [Guide 4]
- waste disposal flows [Guide 4]
- information flows routed via low-cost outsourcing centres [Guide 3]
- TNC investment into new emerging markets and profit repatriation [Guide 5]
- past/present cultural exchanges linked with core–periphery labour flows [Guide 6].
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three or more of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the complexity of global disparities (there are multiple development gaps and disparities eg between emerging economies and the least developed states). Another approach might be to examine non-economic disparities eg differences in governance and human rights. Another approach might be to examine the scale of different flows/movements (eg USA and Mexico are neighbour countries; India and UK are distant from one another).
Answers dealing only with movements from “poor” to “rich” places will most likely show only limited understanding of what could be meant by “disparities between countries” and are unlikely to reach the highest band even if factually detailed.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.
Question
Referring to named countries, analyse how people’s participation in information and communications technology (ICT) networks is changing.[10]
Examine how far the social and environmental costs of globalization can be reduced without also losing its benefits.[15]
Answer/Explanation
Markscheme
The focus here is changing participation. This could refer to people’s participation as either consumers of ICT services or producers eg call centre workers. Candidates should be able to provide one or two examples of trends, developments and/or patterns of adoption at the national scale. They may also offer an overview of the changing global “digital divide”.
- “Participation” by consumers takes many forms, from social media use to remittance transfers.
- Information networks may include broadband internet or mobile/smartphone access.
- Some answers may focus on the increased participation of India and the Philippines in TNC production networks (outsourcing and call centres).
- Some answers may focus on growth on informal ICT services eg new phone app start-ups in Kenya.
- Involvement in e-waste management is a legitimate focus.
- Explanation of changes is not required but can be credited, eg more companies providing citizens with internet access; “middle-class” consumer income growth in many countries; low wages in outsourcing countries.
Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to systematically analyse changes at varying scales (eg provide a global overview and also one example of a changing national pattern, eg the rural–urban divide). Another approach might be to analyse changing social patterns of in inclusion/exclusion (eg for different income groups, women, the elderly).
For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of ICT use in one or more named countries, or an overview of the global “digital divide”.
For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis that includes:
- either detailed changes/developments in ICT participation in two contexts
- or some variety of ways in which people participate (eg covers changing patterns of consumption and production of ICT services).
For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.
Any aspect of environmental and social costs – and benefits – can be examined. Likely environmental themes include costs for the atmosphere, oceans or tropical rainforest. Social costs include worker exploitation or changes to society linked with the global growth of social media. Any action taken to tackle these costs needs weighing carefully against the benefits of global trade and development.
Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
- climate change actions, possibly linked with issues such as the growth of food miles (air freight) [Guide 4] or the growth of polluting transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
- growing environmental awareness fostered via NGOs [Guide 4]
- political (inter-governmental) responses to transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
- the need for global action to prevent loss of tropical rainforest (linked with timber resource use) [Guide 4]
- calls for the regulation of global agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
- recognition that a non-globalized lifestyle [Guide 7] is one that does not enjoy the benefits of economic interactions and flows [Guide 2]
- recognition of the many benefits resulting from the sharing of ideas, information and cultures [Guide 5], which might be jeopardized by anti-global measures [Guide 6/7].
Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that systematically examines different aspects of globalization that do or do not need managing to reduce their costs. Another approach might be to examine effects at different scales (eg comparing local developmental benefits of industrialization with the global costs of carbon emissions). Another approach might be to examine costs and benefits from varying perspectives (“local sourcing” might be viewed as having more costs than benefits by a farmer who wants to export food globally).
Answers that explain the costs and benefits of globalization but do little to actually address the question directly – that is, how far can these costs actually be reduced/tackled without also losing benefits? – are unlikely to reach band D.
For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.
For band D (9–12 marks), expect:
- either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
- or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).
For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.
Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.