Home / IBDP History -Italian Expansion (1933-40)-Study Notes

IBDP History -Italian Expansion (1933-40)-Study Notes

Causes of War:

Economic, ideological, political, territorial and other causes, Short- and long term causes

Long Term Causes:

  • Militarism: As one country’s military grew, the other would plan to attack it before their enemy outgrows their own power.
    • Naval Race:
      • Naval Superiority and dominance of the seas was vital to secure an empire and trading links
      • 1900’s German admiral Alfred Von Tirpitz, made plans to increase the navy.
      • Dec 1906, Britain responds by creating the dreadnought which was superior to other naval ships
      • Dreadnought was more sustainable and capable of destroying ships from large distances.
      • Germany in Response to the British dreadnought, creates its own in 1908
    • Arms Race:
      • Modernization in technology in the 19th century allowed an increase in gov. Spending on countries defense. (Ammo, machine guns firing 400-600 rounds per min)
      • By 1914 most European countries mobilized their armies to the max
      • Triple Entente: totaled 1.5 million soldiers
      • Huge growth in armed forces of the great powers between 1890 and 1914. France by 68%, Russia by 100%, Britain by 77%.
    • War plans
  • Alliance System
  • To secure the German Empire, Bismarck created an alliance with Austria Hungary and Italy.
  • Bismarck also signed a treaty with Russia in 1887 (“Reinsurance Treaty”) which made them friends and in turn isolated France. It Failed in 1890 due to Russians fighting over the Balkan area.
  • France took the opportunity and became allies with Russia in 1894.
  • Britain breaks out of its isolation and forms the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1907.
  • Entente Cordiale (FR and GB) signed in 1904.
  • Alliances increased tensions, suspicion, and fear between the great powers.

 

  • Imperialism/Nationalism:
  • As Britain and France colonized Africa, Bismarck stayed put until Kaiser Wilhelm II used his ‘Weltpolitik’ ideology.
    • Germany deserves ‘a place under the sun’
  • As a result, Germany’s navy strengthened so that I could colonize other countries.
  • Imperialism threatened the security of other countries and their own colonies
  • Since GB owns parts of morocco and it formed an alliance with FR, Germany felt threatened that the powers would control the Mediterranean Sea. 
  • 1905 FR announced taking over morocco, threatened, Germany supported independence of Morocco but lost anyways.
  • 1911 FR took first attempt at colonizing Morocco. Germany intervenes by sending a gunboat asking for compensation in return for colonizing. Germany failed due to British involvement as Usual

 

  • The Balkans:
  • Turkish empire was breaking up from the 19th century leading to a power vacuum in the Balkans.
  • Greeks broke away in 1830, followed by many more states after the Crimean War.
  • European powers sought to fill the power vacuum. Austria-Hungary and Russia were particularly interested in the Balkans. Russia wanted to protect the Slavs. Austria-Hungary was geographically close and felt they had the right to own it.
  • Austria-Hungary sought to expand into Bosnia-Herzegovina. Russia wanted a warm water port and to control the Dardanelles. 
  • Bismarck remained neutral – e.g. honest broker at Congress of Berlin 1878, which gave Austria-Hungary control over Bosnia.
  • Long Term events leading up to the First world war:
  • 1871 – Unification of Germany
  • 1882 – Triple Alliance
  • 1887 – Germany pursues ‘Weltpolitik’
  • 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance
  • 1898 – German Naval Laws
  • 1902 – Anglo-Japanese Alliance
  • 1904 – Entente Cordiale
  • 1904-5 – Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War
  • 1905 – the First Moroccan Crisis
  • 1906 – The first British Dreadnought is launched 
  • 1907 – the Triple Entente
  • 1908 – The Bosnian Crisis
  • 1911 – The second Moroccan Crisis
  • 1912 – The First Balkan War
  • 1913 – The Second Balkan War

 

Short Term Causes:

The July Crisis:

  • Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina 1908
  • June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Hasburg Throne, assassinated by Gavrillo Princip
  • Black Hand, Serbian military nationalists, supported the assassination
  • Austria went to war with Serbia (to crush slavs). Russia Mobilized (since they lost the russo-japanese War in 1905, they were too politically weak to help the slavs in 1908, thus they had to take this chance to help them. Germany Mobilized (the Blank Check). The Alliance system drew everyone into war.
  • Nicholas II knew Germany would mobilize. He wanted to only mobilize partially but was told this was not an option. He ordered General mobilization on 29th July.
  • Austria-Hungary ordered general mobilization on 30th July. Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia requesting she halt mobilization on 31 July. Germany asked what France would do in the event of a Russo-German war. France said it would be guided by their interests. August 1st, Germany declared war on Russia, Aug 3rd on France.
  • Aug 4th, Schlieffen Plan put into action. Germany invaded Belgium. Britain backed Belgium and declared war on Germany.
  • War Plans:
  • Fear of fighting a war on two fronts was a main component, caused by alliances, which made countries draw up war plans.
  • Schlieffen Plan: Created by Count Alfred Von Schlieffen 1905
  • Involved, rapid mobilization of German troops through Belgium in order to invade and occupy France in 6 weeks.
    • It can only be successful if plans are made prior to the attack.
    • 7 armies
  • France also made Plan XVII which involved quick advancement into German territory by concentrating troops near Alsace-Lorraine.

 

  • Bosnian Crisis (1908)
  • Austria­Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina (formally Turkish areas that they had occupied since 1878) which Serbia had hoped to include as their “Greater Serbia”. They also provided access to the sea. The annexation was encouraged by Russian Foreign Minister Izvolsky, but Austria­Hungary went ahead with the annexation before he could gain international support for his plan, and his plan was met with hostile reactions either way.

 

  • Effects:
    • Outrage in Serbia, giving rise to nationalistic sentiments
    • Russia were internationally humiliated yet again (following its defeat in the Russo­Japanese war) and embarked on a massive rearmament programme in order to retain international influence and domestic political stability
    • Further strained relations between Austria­Hungary and Russia
      • Talk of war
      • Ended cooperation in the Balkans between Russia and
      • Austria­Hungary → Balkan situation becoming much more unstable
    • Strengthened the relationship between Germany and Austria­Hungary
      • 1909: Germany assured Austria­Hungary that they would mobilize in support of Austria­Hungary if they went to war with Serbia
      • By opting to encourage Austria­Hungary’s expansion instead of restraining them, they became viewed as increasingly aggressive 
      • Increased mutual suspicion and hostility (between Germany, Austria­Hungary and Russia).

 

Operations on the Western Fronts:

  • Belgium:
  • According to the Schlieffen plan Germany would go through Belgium to Paris
  • Belgium had a small army, but a strong defense
    • Forts surrounded the Liege
  • However, Germans took over the city with the use of bomb-dropping Zeppelins
  • To pass the forts Germany used “Big-Bertha” a 420-millimeter gun and shot a 770 kg shell

 

  • Battle of the Frontiers:
  • It was a series of offenses by the French as a part of Plan XVII and counteroffensive by the German armies.
  • 14 Aug, French army took back Lorraine after it was taken from them in the Franco-Prussian war
  • Plan XVII was successful in re-taking old land and pushed back the German troops.
  • However, Germany advanced with its Schlieffen plan through Belgium. The French only mobilized their army in one side thus leaving gaps for Germany to enter.
  • Plan XVII failed in protecting France resulting in 75,000+ deaths, 25k killed in 1 day

 

  • The Battle of Marne(5-12 September 1914)
  • While the Germans pushed forward into France, British-French forces moved back.
  • Germans struggled to maintain their hold on France since they lacked men to preserve communication & supply lines. Suffered casualties and exhaustion.
    • “The more the Germans advanced the weaker they became”
  • Why did the Schlieffen plan fail?
    • French commander, Joffre, saw the German army moving in front of Paris instead of around. This gave the British & French armies the advantage to attack Germany.
    • French defeated Germany due to the help they received from BEF and the distance-gap within the German Army (approx 50km).
    • The Germans compromised on the wide-arching attack through the Low Countries and encountered more resistance as a result.

 

  • The Race to the Sea:
  • War at seas threatens the security of the army on all sides so they have to defend in both directions.
  • All countries were in a hurry to reach the seas so that they can encompass other countries

 

  • Trench Warfare:
  • Defense side trench consisted of barbed wire which made it extremely hard to cross
  • Flamethrowers, poison gas, mines, and tanks held up the western defense
  • Technology: Aircrafts
  • Fighters: (Zeppelin) Designed to allow air-to-air combat by having an easy maneuverability and firepower. Inventions like the interrupter gear which allowed machine guns to be fired from the plane. Fighters were used to attack enemy investigation airplanes and provide fire support and protect their aircraft.
  • Bombers: planes that dropped bombs which improved in range and weight of bombs they can carry. They targeted railroads and factories in the enemy side
  • Airships: improved aircraft designed to fly high enough to beat the fighter or Zeppelin Planes.
  • Technology: Gas
  • Tearing agents, asphyxiants, blistering agents, chlorine gas were the main gasses.
  • Chlorine was green in color and irritated the eyes/corrupted the lungs. They died of Asphyxiation.
  • Phosgene is deadlier than chlorine because it was hard to detect and it carried the same effects as Chlorine.
  • Mustard Gas: contact with skin and moist areas would cause 3rd degree burns and if inhaled the bronchitis and bronchioles would burn. Took a couple days-weeks to die. Mustard gas was heavier than air so it sometimes remained the trenches for days along with the soldiers
  • Battle of Verdun (February-October 1916)
  • Germans attacking French fortresses operated by Erich Von Falkenhayn
  • Required a 13 km spread of German Soldiers, 1,200 artillery pieces, 8 German army divisions, enormous guns used in Belgium which required approx 2.5 million shells.
  • Goal was to kill as many French soldiers as possible however, French general Petain, used ‘active defense’ – holding on to their land.
  • The Germans could not move forward due to the heavy guns they possessed, mountainous areas of Verdun. France survived by having their own secret supply chain.
  • Turned into a battle of Attrition – both sides try to win by making the other collapse by continuous losses.
  • Technology: Communication
  • When armies grew in distance bugles and drums or pipes or flags were used for communication
  • Communication between the soldiers and the generals about the progress of the fighting was necessary especially since it traveled a distance of 13km ( Battle of Verdun) or 26 km ( battle of Somme) *Note these distances may not be accurate, use on your own accord.
  • Trench Runners: each army had soldiers whose main duty is to carry info through the labyrinthe trench system. Very Dangerous. 
  • Flags: Semaphore flags which visually carried messages and can send 12 words a minute
  • Heliographs and lamps: communication via Morse code by concentrating on sunlight which makes them useless at night
  • Carrier Pigeons: British Army had 22k pigeons in service. By the end of the war 100k of them were used. They had a failure to return rate of 2%
  • Battle of the Somme (July-November 1916) Bloodiest battle in WW1
  • First battle where British forces use Tanks
  • British attempt to break the German line in France with the help of French Army
  • The advancement of British and French required: 3 million shells for guns, 1.5k artillery pieces, 11,200km of buried telephone cable, 100k horses, 300 water trucks, thousands of pigeons, 750k+ British soldiers
  • Plan: 1 week long of artillery bombardment in trenches as well as detonating mines that existed under the German lines. The British-French soldiers “creeping barrage” would then sweep up “no man’s land” while another set of troops defended them from behind.
  • Majority of deaths happened in no man’s land
  • British advancement 12 km and suffered 420k deaths, French 192k, Germans 500k
  • Why did the British Fail?
    • British bombardment was inadequate since the shells made little effect in destroying the barbed wire and defense of Germany.
    • There was a delay between the bombardment and the barrage attack which gave Germans time to recover.
    • There was no alternative plan
  • Technology: Machine Guns
  • Hiram Maxim (American) designed the gun that shot 600 rounds per min
  • In 1914 all armies had versions of the Maxim. Large weapons that required 3-4 men to operate.
  • Jamming and overheating was a consistent problem.
  • By the end of the war, 1,200 bullets could be fired per min with a range of 1000 meters
  • Smaller machine guns were developed and can be used on aircrafts like: Lewis Gun and Vickers machine gun.
  • Passchendaele (July-November 1917)
  • Context: Russian army almost dead. 50 French divisions remained in trenches and refused to fight in unnecessary battles. The Italian army was weak.
  • Plan: British general Haigh wanted to capture the German U-Boat bases
  • The British army advanced in strategy and technology: guns would fire four times as many shells, and produce twice as many guns. Newly used weapons: Tanks which progressed the military
  • However, torrential rain ruined the effectiveness of Tanks, and made it harder for soldiers to move across No Man’s Land. The muddy floor sunk up horses, men, and tanks.
  • Rain also caused rifles to be clogged with mud which slowed the British Army.
  • British forces made little to no progress and fought a stalemate for 1 month before calling Canadian forces to help 26th October capturing the village of Passchendaele, Belgium.
  • Allied side suffered 270,000 deaths
  • Why was it so controversial?
    • General Haig never called off the offensive attack: for every 5 miles advanced, the British would lose a quarter of a million casualties. 
  • Technology: Tanks
  • Breaking through no man’s land was the main goal
  • Used in Battle of Somme for the first time. The tank was operated by 8 men which traveled 6km/h and broke down often.
  • Allies used thanks as armored shelter for soldiers moving
    • British army moved forward 3,500 meters with fewer casualties using tanks
  • End of the war Tanks had improved and had their own artillery.
  • Germans didn’t care that much about tanks and owned 20+
  • France produced 4k tanks, Britain produced 2,600
  • How important was this tech?
    • They allowed fast mobilization
    • Can be used as a moving shield for infantry
    • Can shield soldiers from infantry weapons

Operations on the Eastern Front

  • Battle of Tannenberg 1914
  • 20th August Russians invaded Germany with twice as much soldiers
  • Germany suffered at first but since the Russian generals, Samsonov and Rennekmapfs, hated each others the Germans fought each army by itself separately.
  • Resulted in capturing the 2nd Russian Army.
  • Instead of reporting that Russians suffered 30,000 casualties and 95,000 captured. General Samsonov killed himself. Germany won the battle of Tannenberg
  • At the Battle of Masurian Lakes, the German army fought the Russian First ARmy resulting in 95,000 casualties/ Germany wins Battle of Masurian Lakes.
  • Battle of Gallipoli
  • French and British attempt to attack the Ottoman Empire
  • Plan, made by Winston Churchill, is to invade through Dardanelle (Turkey), which gave access to the Mediterranean.
  • They planned on invading by using squadrons of battleships
  • Instead they failed since Turk mobile guns reduced the squadron numbers by a third
  • British forces and New Zealand/Australian forces landed on Gallipoli which only resulted in a stalemate.
  • 28th December 1915 and 6th January 1916 Allied forces left Gallipoli
  • Allies suffered 300,000 casualties while Turks suffered 250,000
  • Why were amphibious landings so dangerous for the attacking forces?
    • Attacking forces faced retaliation in the sea
    • Amphibious vehicles are slow and ineffective and result in high casualties
    • Attacking forces can’t fight back with aggressive weapons (bombs,tanks)
    • WHen they arrive on the shores they are susceptible to defense forces.
  • The War at Sea
  • Germany was at a disadvantage in terms of numbers in their navies
    • Germany had 18 dreadnoughts while Britain had 31
  • Main goal of war at sea is to attack the enemy economically by destroying the import ships, or destroying the bays.
  • Germany’s only access to bays/shipping lanes is through the English Channel, controlled by the Royal Navy.
  • 1914-1915 German High Seas fleet used a hit and run strategy
    • Fleet would fight the Royal Navy (defense) before the Grand fleet would arrive
    • Resulted in victory of Dogger Bank in 1915
  • German boats improved in communication and were able to create long-lasting damages to the Royal Navy.
  • Technology: Submarines
  • U-boats blocked the enemy without mobilizing a large fleet
  • Early models had one torpedo tube however as the war progressed, U-boats had multiple torpedoes
  • U-boats were ineffective in terms of not being able to take on survivors
  • The Home front
    • November 1918 WW1 ends

Effects of the First World War:

  • Political and Territorial Changes:
    • WW1 led to awareness of the problems in Russia (Shortage of Food, elite power of the Tsar troops)
    • 1917 Russians protested starting a revolution
    • Marxist party gained many supporters from their slogan “Peace-Bread-Land” and took over Russia
    • Germany, Britain, France, Austro-Hungary were involved in the Russian Revolution
    • This revolution created right and left wing dictators across Europe
      • Mussolini Italy, Ataturk Turkey, Hitler Germany
    • Loss of faith in Monarchies which had lost the war. Republicanism rose, along with radical fascist movements in Germany and Italy
    • S Woodrow Wilson fell from power, US was republican until 1933
    • David Lloyd George, British prime minister, and liberal were no longer elected in British politics
    • Austro-Hungarian emperor lost power and led to collapse of the empire (Same with Ottoman Empire)
    • Germany became the Weimar Republic
      Most defeated nations lost territory which birthed new countries in Europe
      • Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Polanda, Finland, Baltic States.
  • The Successes and Failures of Peacemaking:
    • Treaty of Neuilly 1919: to Bulgaria, reparations of 2.2 billion Francs
    • Treaty of Trianon: Hungary, reparations 220 million gold crowns. Land taken to form Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania
    • Treaty of Sevres 1920: Turkey, no reparations, land taken which formed Kurdistan, Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Jordan etc
    • Treaty of Locarno 1925: to Belgium, Germany, France.
    • Treaty of Versailles:
      • French wanted revenge and future security
      • British wanted imperial gains
      • S wanted peace and international trade
      • Turkey, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium were not invited to the Versailles meeting
    • Germany was forced to sign a humiliating peace treaty, accept responsibility for the war and pay huge reparations.
  • Economic:
    • All countries faced high inflation
    • OVerall the War cost 34 billion GBP. This shattered economic progress in most countries
    • Since the Great Powers created war production economies, Food, Infrastructure and Land was not used to its advantage
    • Humans loss led to shortage of labor (women worked more)
    • Most Important:
      • Shift in economic power to the US and Japan
      • 1918 US dominated money markets and financed most of Europe
    • Agricultural produce increased a lot during the war so when the war ended, Demand for those goods decreased resulting in fluctuations of price.
    • After the war, demand for heavy industries decreased (Steel, Coal, iron) making them lose profit
      • Large number of people worked in manufacturing industries which led to large unemployment
      • Large areas of land and industry were destroyed, hence manufacturing output after the war had decreased
    • Diversification of resources is a main element to saving the economy
  • German Economic Weakness / Allied Blockades
    • The combined economy of the Central Powers was smaller than that of the Allied Powers. This meant the Allied powers would prevail in a long-lasting war of attrition
    • Allied blockades weakend Germany’s economy further such that there was starvation on the home front by the end of the war -> led to social unrest, particularly socialists.
    • In 1918, strikes multiplied, socialists staged uprisings in German Cities. Sailors in Kiel Mutinitied
  • Strengths of Allied Powers
    • Italy joined in 1915 after the Treaty of London promised her land
    • USA more than offset Russia’s withdrawal.
    • After Germany had overstretched in the Ludendorff Offensive, the allied power struck back and quickly defeated Germany.
    • Had better cooperation under the Supreme Allied commander, Ferdinand Foch
    • NEw tactics emerged in 1918 such as the combined use of tanks and aircraft
  • Social Effect
    • Human Cost
      • 8 million soldiers dead. Left a huge number of widows, war-wounded, that had to be funded by the state.
      • 5 million civilians dead by disease and a flu epidemic in 1918-1919 killed 15 million
    • Trade Unions
      • Governments were dependent on workers and industry during the war, giving them increased political power and stronger unions.
      • In U.S black workers in the south moved to the north getting more freedom and opportunities
      • Russia moved a lot of its urban workers into the cities
      • Britain, Trade union membership went from 4 million to 8 million
    • WW1 brought freedom and mobility for women (allowing them to obtain degrees, social and sexual freedom)

 

Also, what caused America to Join the First world War:

They Declared war in April in 1917

They joined because of two main factors

  • The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare
  • Zimmerman Telegram

Immediate Causes

  1. The July Crisis

On 28 June 1914, a 19­year­old terrorist Gavrilo Princip associated with the Serbian Black Hand movement shot the Austro­ Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Bosnia. Austria­ Hungary saw this as an opportunity to crush Serbia ­ Serbia was weak, still recovering from the Balkan Wars, which had caused it to double in size. However, they hesitated, knowing that an attack on Serbia would involve the Russians, and knew that an attack on Serbia would involve the Russians → sought assurance that Germany would support them.

  • 5 July 1914: ​Kaiser and his chancellor gave Austria a ‘blank cheque’, a German guarantee of unconditional support.
    •  By not restraining Austria­ Hungary, and giving them the ‘blank cheque’, Germany gave them confidence to invade Serbia.
  • Austria ­Hungary wanted to issue Serbia an ultimatum which they thought Serbia were unlikely to agree to (stringent) to justify military action against Serbia.
  • 23 July 1914: ​Ultimatum sent to Serbia, reply required within 48 hours. To their surprise, Serbia replied promptly, willing to accept all demands except one. This refusal was viewed as a ‘rejection’ and used by Austria ­Hungary as an excuse for invasion.
    •  The ultimatum came after a delay of a month, suggesting that it was a carefully calculated move (on part of Austria­ Hungary) and did not come to Serbia as a shock.
    •  Evidence that Austria­ Hungary wanted to go to war.
  •  28 July 1914:​ Austria ­Hungary declares part mobilization and war on Serbia.
  •  30 July 1914: Russia orders full mobilization. → Third Balkan War (Serbia + Russia vs. Austria­ Hungary)
  • 31 July 1914: Germany starts military preparations, sends Russia an ultimatum to back down, and an ultimatum to Paris demanding French neutrality (due to the demands of the Schlieffen Plan). France declared that they would follow their ‘own interests’.
  • 1 August 1914: Germany mobilizes fully and declares war on Russia. A­H mobilises but waits to declare war.
  • 2 August 1914: ​Germany demands that Belgium lets its forces pass. King Albert asks Britain for help. The cabinet agreed only to defend a ‘substantial violation’ of Belgium. (Treaty of London, 1839: pledged to protect Belgium.)
  •  3 August 1914:​ Germany declares war on France.
  • 4 August 1914: Germany’s plan to take out France involved them marching through Belgium to avoid the heavily fortified French border. Britain chose to uphold the Treaty of London and threatened to defend Belgium if Germany did not uphold its neutrality.
  • No response from Germany → Britain declared war on Germany → BEGINNING OF WORLD WAR 1

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE?????

  • 1  Germany

Blank cheque encouraged Austria­ Hungary attack on Serbia BUT it is possible that they

thought this would keep Russia from getting involved (because Germany and

Austria­Hungary would be putting up a strong front to scare Russia away), limiting the

war to another Balkan war instead of expanding it into a Great War.

Responsibility for war:

  •  Blank Cheque: Supported Austria ­Hungary so that it would not get crushed by the Entente powers, gave Austria­ Hungary the confidence to declare war
  •  Weltpolitik was an aggressive foreign policy that heightened tensions in Europe both imperial tensions and naval
  •  Kaiser Wilhelm II broke Bismarck’s web of alliance, causing lots of shit to happen after, e.g. failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty (1887) → Franco­Russian Alliance (1894)
  •  Use of intimidation and force in the Moroccan Crises raised suspicions and hostility in Europe
  •  Mobilization, declaring war on Russia, violating Belgian neutrality

2.Austria­Hungary

  • Exaggerated the potential threat of Serbia, insistence on an unrealistic ultimatum showed determination to make war.
  • Delayed response to the assassination contributed to the development (escalation of events) of the July Crisis ­ their response could not be presented as a shock reaction but seemed far more calculated
    •  Evidence that Austria­Hungary wanted war

3.Russia

  • Supported Serbia, deepening the conflict and possibly giving Serbia the confidence to reject Austria­Hungary’s ultimatum.
  •  Mobilization of Russian troops triggered a general European war (if they mobilized, other countries had to mobilize because of alliances)

4.France

  •  Swept into war ­ didn’t really want to get involved ­ but they did want revenge against Germany
  • Gave Russia assurances of support before the July Crisis, making Russia more likely to mobilize

 5.Britain

  •  Did not make its position clear during the July Crisis, which might have deterred Germany from doing what they were gonna do
  •  Get involved with war due to low politics: Doves (Lloyd George) vs. Hawks (Asquith, Grey, Churchill) in the British parliament. The Doves wanted peace while the Hawks wanted war, or threatened to resign. This would lead to elections and the British parliament risked a liberal takeover.

Causes and practices of the Spanish Civil War 

Regional divisions:

  • Spain comprised of the central state, the Basque country and Catalonia
  • The Basque and Catalans had their own language and culture and wanted decentralization and independence from Spain
  • By the 20th century, they were economically independent and had their own industrialized economies and churches.
  • Both these countries wanted autonomy from Spain and they had the support of the republicans

Economic and social divisions

  • The cities in the north (Barcelona, Madrid, Bilbao) were highly modernized and industrialized, and also significantly richer than the cities in the south
  • This created a new urban proletariat and industrial elite in the north
  •  In the south, the contrast was large. Many peasants worked on large estates called latifundias, that were owned by the rich land owning class.
  • Agriculture:
    • Spain’s economy was agriculturally based; the south of Spain was mainly agricultural. Some peasants in the north owned small plots of land that were economically unviable.
    • Despite some industrialisation in the north, the economy of Spain was mainly agricultural. Yet this agricultural sector did not provide enough work and food for peasants all year round, and lead to the growing discontent amongst peasants.
  • Working Class:
    • Workers faced low wages, long hours, unregulated working conditions, poor housing, little welfare support → growth of trade unions, but the trade unions often competed with each other (e.g. UGT vs CNT) and did not have any real power because employers could always find more labor from the countryside.
    •  No legal means to improve the situation→ workers turned to violent uprising to effect change. (violent conflict between employers and employees, esp. when there were economic problems in Spain)

 Political Conditions 

  •  As a result of these regional/economic/social divisions, the nation of Spain was deeply divided.
  •  The rich landowners/industrial elite, Army, Church and the Monarchists lent their support to the Conservatives and Fascists
  •  The proletariat/peasants, republicans, reformers and the minorities (Basque/Catalan) lent their support to the socialists and anarchists.
  • Different political parties:
  •  Liberals: did not really achieve anything in opposing the Conservatives, but they did support the revolution that ousted the King in 1931.
  •  Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE): grew in urban areas, but had minimal impact
    • UGT (trade union): more visible in organizing strikes and protests in urban areas
    •  Socialists: played a significant role in the 1931 revolution, but became divided over the reforms that should take place —> divided into two— the more moderate socialists (led by Indalecio Prieto) and the radicals (led by Largo Cabarello)
    • Anarchists: major political group— supported by peasants due to their demand for the redistribution of land. Argued for revolutionary methods, boycotted all democratic processes. (Trade union: CNT— active in organizing strikes and protests.)
    •  Extreme Anarchists: Spanish Anarchist Federation (FAI)— perpetrated bombings and assassinations.

The role of Church

  • The Catholic Church was rich and powerful. It bore a heavy influence over the daily lives of everyone in Spain and was deeply conservative.
  • Its main support base was the rich landowners and as such, it was seen as both an enemy of change and as a figure of oppression due to its support base
  • Thus, it was greatly resented by all the peasantry.

 

The role of the Army

  • The Army was grossly over officered, roughly one officer to every hundred men. Also, it was unpopular due to the losses of overseas territories (Cuba and the Philippines), and its brutality. The officer corp was dominated by the upper classes and hence it was very conservative and opposed change.
  • Supported by upper and middle classes (who formed most of the officer corps). Generally conservative. ‘Africanistas’ who had served in Morocco were the most traditional and nationalistic.
  • This Army that had nothing much to do hence adopted the role of protector of security, law and tradition. As a result of this, political tension was generated by the Army’s frequent interference in home affairs and politics. (especially because the army blamed civilian politicians for the loss of the empire, believed that they had no moral right to govern the country.
  • The army believed that it was the protector of the nation (wanted to defend Spain’s historic greatness⇒ against change.) ((and had the right to intervene in politics if a crisis occurred→ intervened several times before. BUT they did not act to save the King in 1931, leading to the King’s exile. They also intervened during the Second Republic and in 1936⇒ war.))

Weakness of Government

  • Constitutional Monarchy: the King (Alfonso XIII) was the head of state, appointed a prime minister who should have commanded a majority in the parliament (Cortes), which was elected by the male population.
  • Real power lay in the hands of the oligarchs, political power shifted between them.
  • Two main political parties (Conservatives and Liberals), but there was no real difference between them. Elections were rigged/decided by corruption, there was no main

democratic party  ⇒ superficial stability but very socially unstable because nothing ever changed→ people either became apathetic or opposed to the current government.

Short term causes of the Spanish Civil War

Political polarization

In 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned after having failed to solve Spain’s economic problems. Municipal elections held showed popular support for leftist political parties (republicans, liberals, socialists), hence with no one willing to support the reign of the monarchy left, King Alfonso went into voluntary exile. → His departure marked the start of the Second Spanish Republic in April 1931

The left republic (April 1931 ­ November 1933)

  • Centre left party won the election, new president was Manuel Azana.
  • New government declared a new constitution, with the intention of making spain a “democratic republic of workers of all classes”
  • Azana​ was highly anti church and anti army
  • Undermined the power of the church and separated church and state by removing its control over education in Spain
  • Undermined the power of the Army by closing the Saragossa military academy and offering officers early retirement on full pay
    • This was a big mistake as it effectively radicalized the army and meant that all those left in the army were nationalist and conservative to the core
    • Also, it was extremely expensive as 50% of the officers took up the government’s offer of retiring on full pay
  • Spain was hit hard by the Great depression (yes, that’s right, bet you forgot about el greato depressiono) and its agricultural prices, wine and olive exports were plummeting
    • Also, it was extremely expensive as 50% of the officers took up the government’s offer of retiring on full pay
    • Increasing number of peasants unemployed due to collapsing agricultural industry
    • Industrial production decreased too, with iron falling by a third and steel by almost a half
    • Minister of Labour, Largo Caballero​, tried to stop this decline by offering a land distribution programme with compensation for landowners, but the government did not have the money necessary to do this and this benefitted less than 7000 families.
  • Civil unrest continued and the government still put them down with great brutality
    • Introduction of the Assault Guard in an attempt to produce a left leaning military force to check the balance of the right wing army
    • However, most of the army still remained loyal to the state and uprisings were suppressed
  • Catalonia given its own parliament, which upset the right as they saw this as a move towards independence for the regions and the breakup of Spain
  • Each of the new leftist government’s reforms was seen as an attack on right wing groups
    • Right­wing formed a new political party in order to defend the interests of the conservative church and landowners.
    • This party came to be known as the CEDA (Spanish confederation of the autonomous right) and was led by Gil Robles
    • Important to note that CEDA under Gil Robles ​was modelled after Hitler’s Nazi party in Germany
  • Fall of the 1931-­1933 left wing government was largely seen as a failure to introduce effective land reforms, but historian Paul Preston argues that it was because the right­wing was never going to give the left wing government a chance to succeed.
  • They did not do enough to placate the left and peasants, but did enough to anger the right
  • Azana​ resigned in 1933 after he lost working class and socialist support.

 

The Right Republic (November 1933 ­ February 1936)

  • In the November 1933 elections, the Republic swung to the right
  • Despite CEDA being the largest party in the republic, the President initially resisted giving Gil Robles power, however CEDA withdrew support, forcing the government’s hand.
    • Gil Robles was made War minister and 2 other CEDA members were given cabinet posts
  • The 2 years that the new Right Wing government came into power were known as the black years
    • This was because it seemed that the new right wing government was only keen on undoing all the reforms that the left wing government had introduced previously
    • Church control of education was restored and the Azana’s ​key economic reform ­the land programme ­was halted.
    • Catalonia tried to declare its independence after CEDA joined the government, but its autonomy was suspended after the Asturian miners’ uprising in 1934
    • This uprising was crushed using the army, notably, the Moroccan troops or Moors (Filthy Franco​)
  • Widespread use of violence made for a loss of support for the right wing government, notably the Basques, who now lent their support to the left wing
  • Largo Caballero ​called for a halt to Robles and his right­wing actions, likening CEDA to the Spanish Nazi party, and that Spain should seek a more Soviet styled left­wing solution for Spain’s problems
  • Gil Robles responded by demanding a shift to a more authoritarian approach to controlling the communists in Spain.
    • This led to the left and center left groups (Caballero and Prieto) ​being able to find a common ground to enable them to take on the right wing
    • Right Republic disintegrated as the political and economic situation deteriorated and was

dissolved in February 1936

The Popular Front (February 1936 ­ July 1936) ​aka The Second Left Republic ​aka where the confusion about the Spanish Civil War comes from

Immediate causes

Military rising July 1936

  • Victory of the left in the 1936 elections threw the right wing CEDA into turmoil
  • The murder of José Sotelo (popular CEDA leader) hastened preparations for a military coup 1936 led by junior officers + senior Africanista officers (Franco and Mola included)
    • 17 July: Revolt began with troops in Morocco and spread to military units throughout Spain, but was met with armed resistance from left wing unions, particularly in rural south, Barcelona, and Madrid.
      • As a result, army was only able to take control of parts of Spain, bringing the country into a civil war.

 

 

Foreign intervention in the Spanish Civil War 

Reasons for foreign intervention

Britain and France

  • France initially supported the Republic because they didn’t want the Nationalists to win (fear of encirclement by Fascists+strengthening of Germany and Italy’s relations.) but they didn’t fully commit due to domestic concerns­­ political polarization, lack of public support for the war meant that there might be a revolt if they fully committed to Spain.
  • Signed the non­intervention pact (Non Intervention committee NIC)
  • Tried to get involved by not getting involved
  • Scared of a European war and was an early forerunner of appeasement
  • Domestic concerns → France’s political problems, lack of public support for war
  • Weakens the left in Spain as they are unable to purchase arms
  • Didn’t do anything about the right/nationalists purchasing arms

Italy

  • Got involved because of ideological reasons
  • Also wanted to isolate France, dominate the mediterranean and have access to the Spanish iron ore
  • Improve Mussolini’s popularity at home ­ win another glorious war
  • Sent 75,000 men and resources but put a huge financial strain on its economy

Russia

  • Involved because of ideology and fear of fascism (Collective security ­ joined LON in 1934)
    • Saw a potential communist ally in western europe ­Spain
  • Only country that supported the left and they were the only country that the leftist republicans could purchase arms from
  • needed economic resources → obtained Spanish gold reserves by making the Republicans pay for German aid ­­ profits ­ to industrialize
  • Didn’t provide the same level of troops and arms as the fascists did for the nationalists
  • From 1938, commitment began to reduce → gave up on collective security and trying to make allies with Britain

Germany

  • Hitler got involved as he saw Franco as a potential fascist ally → wanted to expand the reach of fascism in europe
  • Wanted to test out their new military tactics
  • Airlifted Franco and the moors to the mainland from morocco
  • Wanted access to the iron, copper and zinc ore as an indemnity for Germany’s intervention in the war

International Brigades

  • Made up of men and women from all over the world who wanted to oppose Fascism→ fought for the Republicans.
  • Boosted morale, but did not do much (max. 15 000 at a time, most with little to no military experience.)

Impact of foreign intervention

  • Britain
    • Non ­Intervention Committee (1936)
      • Three key members (those under dictatorships – Germany, Italy, USSR) ignored it completely and provided foreign forces anyway
    • Limited Republicans, tended to favor Nationalists
      • Nationalists allowed to use Gibraltar as their base, compared to their complete prevention of aid going to the Republic
      • Trade agreement with Nationalists (1936) allowing British companies to trade with rebel forces
    • Self­interest of avoiding war – sacrificed Spain to the policy of appeasement to maintain relations with Italy, Portugal, and Germany (which Chamberlain still had faith in)

 

  • France
    • Inconsistent support ending up with it decided to pursue non­intervention together with Britain, dealing a fatal blow to the Republic
      • Support of a large country on the border would have been beneficial
      • Resulted in reliance on Soviet Union: gold reserves, also associated the Republic with ‘Soviet communism’
    • Did not stop citizens from joining International Brigades (mainly French); main center for coordinating Soviet aid

 

  • Soviet Union
    • Welcomed the NIC, but, following Italy and Germany’s example, didn’t really care about it and withdrew in October 1936
    • Dragged the war out with good purpose
      • Weaken, drain resources of Germany
      • If this developed into a general war, it would be waged far from the borders of the Soviet Union

 

 

  • Germany
    • German air support helped Franco set­up a beachhead in the south, where the food was grown → crucial to Franco gaining an advantage in the war (economic and strategic benefits)
    • Raw materials e.g. iron ore
      • Deployment to Spain would give Germany the potential to hamper Anglo­French maritime communications
      • Goering wanted to test out his Luftwaffe in live conditions; Hitler wanted to stop the spread of communism
    • Pivotal support important to the outcome of the war, playing crucial military roles at critical times
      • Luftwaffe also helped bomb Guernica when it was held by the Republicans → Nationalists taking Catalonia

 

  • Italy
    • Strategic advantages
      • Involvement would reinforce his pro­fascist stance
      • Enhance influence as key Mediterranean power, demonstrate Italy’s might
      • Fascist victory → undermine France (and therefore left­wing French influence)
    • Air and naval support helped the Nationalists to secure victory
    • Relationship between Italy and Germany was cemented in Spain

 

Russia

  • Involved because of ideology and fear of fascism (Collective security ­ joined LON in 1934)
    • Saw a potential communist ally in western europe ­Spain
  • Only country that supported the left and they were the only country that the leftist republicans could purchase arms from
  • needed economic resources → obtained Spanish gold reserves by making the Republicans pay for German aid ­­ profits ­ to industrialize
  • Didn’t provide the same level of troops and arms as the fascists did for the nationalists
  • From 1938, commitment began to reduce → gave up on collective security and trying to make allies with Britain

Germany

  • Hitler got involved as he saw Franco as a potential fascist ally → wanted to expand the reach of fascism in europe
  • Wanted to test out their new military tactics
  • Airlifted Franco and the moors to the mainland from morocco
  • Wanted access to the iron, copper and zinc ore as an indemnity for Germany’s intervention in the war

 

International Brigades

  • Made up of men and women from all over the world who wanted to oppose Fascism→ fought for the Republicans.
  • Boosted morale, but did not do much (max. 15 000 at a time, most with little to no military experience.)

 

 

Impact of foreign intervention

  • Britain
    • Non ­Intervention Committee (1936)
      • Three key members (those under dictatorships – Germany, Italy, USSR) ignored it completely and provided foreign forces anyway
    • Limited Republicans, tended to favor Nationalists
      • Nationalists allowed to use Gibraltar as their base, compared to their complete prevention of aid going to the Republic
      • Trade agreement with Nationalists (1936) allowing British companies to trade with rebel forces
    • Self­interest of avoiding war – sacrificed Spain to the policy of appeasement to maintain relations with Italy, Portugal, and Germany (which Chamberlain still had faith in)

 

  • France
    • Inconsistent support ending up with it decided to pursue non­intervention together with Britain, dealing a fatal blow to the Republic
      • Support of a large country on the border would have been beneficial
      • Resulted in reliance on Soviet Union: gold reserves, also associated the Republic with ‘Soviet communism’
    • Did not stop citizens from joining International Brigades (mainly French); main center for coordinating Soviet aid

 

  • Soviet Union
    • Welcomed the NIC, but, following Italy and Germany’s example, didn’t really care about it and withdrew in October 1936
    • Dragged the war out with good purpose
      • Weaken, drain resources of Germany
      • If this developed into a general war, it would be waged far from the borders of the Soviet Union

 

 

  • Germany
    • German air support helped Franco set­up a beachhead in the south, where the food was grown → crucial to Franco gaining an advantage in the war (economic and strategic benefits)
    • Raw materials e.g. iron ore
      • Deployment to Spain would give Germany the potential to hamper Anglo­French maritime communications
      • Goering wanted to test out his Luftwaffe in live conditions; Hitler wanted to stop the spread of communism
    • Pivotal support important to the outcome of the war, playing crucial military roles at critical times
      • Luftwaffe also helped bomb Guernica when it was held by the Republicans → Nationalists taking Catalonia

 

  • Italy
    • Strategic advantages
      • Involvement would reinforce his pro­fascist stance
      • Enhance influence as key Mediterranean power, demonstrate Italy’s might
      • Fascist victory → undermine France (and therefore left­wing French influence)
    • Air and naval support helped the Nationalists to secure victory
    • Relationship between Italy and Germany was cemented in Spain

 

  • Portugal
    • Fundamental to supplying the rebels along the Spanish–Portuguese border, provided a base for communications
    • Long­term Anglo­Portuguese relationships deterred Britain from countering its support → benefit for Franco’s troops

 

 

 

Reasons for Nationalist victory

Republican weaknesse

  • Political disunity
    • The Second Republic suffered from serious divisions undermining its war effort and military capacity; ‘civil war within a civil war’
      • g. Three­sided conflict between liberals, authoritarian socialists / communists, anarchists
      • Republicans were disunified, trade unions vs republican government → soldiers attached to anarchist/communist groups, government didn’t trust them
    • Large ideological range
    • Divided over primary objective of war → irreconcilable ideological conflict
      • Socialists / communists backed the maintenance of the Popular Front and investment in defeat of Franco
      • Anarchists, ultra­left communists wanted to progress with the ‘revolution’ believing that compromising on this would weaken the war effort
      • g. Violent expression of disagreement in Barcelona ‘Mgeay Days’ (1937)

 

  • Poor military organization
    • Had loyal generals, but lacked middle ranking officers → provision of inexperienced NCOs at an important level, formed haphazardly
      • Even then the loyal generals, who had potentially valuable experience, were distrusted by the Republic
    • Less cohesive, relied on militias and elected officers
      • Strategies discussed at length, reducing speed and efficiency
      • Encouraged insubordination
    • Anarchist militias and Basques refused to be led by a central command structure
      • The Basques would also not provide troops to defend anywhere outside their own territory
    • Poor organization was exacerbated by geographical locations
      • Different territories operated separately
      • Battlefields were not in range of their air force

 

 

  • Foreign aid was poor, non­committal
    • The cheating wife, Russia: closest ally, but Stalin was unwilling to commit Russia too fully in case fear of a German invasion
      • Involvement in Spain meant to stiffen the West against fascism
      • After appeasement, he realized this wouldn’t work and lost interest
    • France was reluctant to assist a fellow republic
      • Blum and Daladier kept out of the conflict for fear of alienating important groups in France, e.g. Catholics
    • US kept out to avoid complicating relations with right wing, pro­Franco regimes in Latin America (important trading partners)
    • Britain was the biggest obstacle
      • Baldwin and Chamberlain hoped to come to terms with Germany, and revive Anglo­Italian relationships
      • Considered communism a bigger threat than fascism (Stalin > Franco)
      • Didn’t support Franco either, Nationalist policies were repugnant
      • Strong case against risking a general European war in support of the Republic, which was increasingly leaning left
      • Placed heavy pressure on France to ban all arms sales to the Republic and also influenced the formation of the Non­Intervention Committee (1936)

 Dwindling finances

    • Initially owned the world’s fourth largest gold reserve, controlled main cities and industrial areas but :^(
      • Eventual government orders to banks to maintain neutrality → difficulties in paying through normal international banking channels for arms shipments
    • Workers’ committees and countryside collective farms were assumed to be able to meet the financial needs of the Republic
      • They were wrong
      • Impact of the war and badly run government → production in Catalan (key area) fell by two­thirds (1936­1939), causing food and raw material shortages
    • High inflation (300%) was also a problem; low wage increase (15%)
    • Impact of Non­Intervention Committee
      • Starved Republic of all credit
    • Conditions of Soviet Union provision of finances
      • Requested that all Spanish gold reserves are transferred to Moscow
        • Wanna guess where this goes (hint: it never goes back)
      • Provided 1,000 aircrafts, 500 tanks; 500­5000 advisors arrived with Stalin’s instructions to ‘keep out of artillery range’

 

 

Nationalist strengths

  • Political cohesion
    • Largely due to Franco’s leadership – overcame internal disputes to balance the different Nationalists groups
      • Carlists: Left question of monarchy open, catered to their demand for legislation favouring Catholic Church
      • Falangists: Allowed to direct propaganda to influence the characteristics of a mass movement that Franco was prepared to allow; close relationships with Italy and Germany also pleased them
      • Army (no ideology) relied on Franco to maintain its position and influence
    • Franco ensured adequate representation of various Interests
      • First National Council (1937) combined Falangists, Carlists, generals, and others that were prevented from becoming too dominant or radical

 

 

  • Superior military structure and organisation
    • Systematic method, military academies produced 30,000 trained officers
      • Centralised control of all militias (1936 – from the start!)
      • Imposed rigorous military discipline
      • Developed efficient military administration
    • Battle strategy – unimaginative, but solid
    • Would not launch an offensive unless certain that he could see it through to the end; slow, but good results

 

  • Foreign assistance
    • Vital to Franco’s successes
      • Transportation of Franco’s troops from Morocco to southern Spain leading to success in Andalusia campaign (1936)
      • Sudden increase in Italian equipment boosted Nationalist morale after a series of Republican victories
      • Another massive flow of armaments (1939) allowed Franco to crush Catalonia
    • Troops sent
      • Italy: 50,000 ground troops, 950 tanks, 763 aircrafts, 91 warships
      • Germany: 16,000 military advisers, Condor Legion (latest aircrafts)
      • Portugal: 20,000 troops and permitted passing through border

 

  • Financially okay
    • Business community backed the Nationalists, meaning they were able to purchase arms
    • Series of financial agreements with Italy and Germany solved the problem of Spanish gold reserves being under Republican control
      • Italian aid provided was worth $263 million; German arms worth $215 million and in total, Franco might have received $570 million worth of aid from abroad
    • Controlled main food production areas by 1936; main industrial areas by 1937
    • International trade and credit
      • The USA gave $700 million in credit
      • Significant amount of business done with multinational companies in Western democracies – lots of rubber and oil, from the US e.g. Texas Oil
      • Company, Shell

 

Nature of the Spanish Civil War

  • For Spain: ‘Total’ war + civil war
    • Use of propaganda to dehumanize the enemy (despite being from the same country); atrocities committed against their own people
    • Targeted civilians in bombing raids e.g. Guernica
      • Moving into modern warfare; new technology
      • Importance of naval and air power
      • Condor Legion lengthened the war, and neither side managed to consistently gain control of the air
      • Control of the sea was significant in maintaining supply routes
      • Land warfare saw attritions and stalemates high casualties,
        • However, land battles did reflect the changing nature of warfare
          • The tactics of Blitzkrieg were evolving, with the application of tanks, artillery and air bombardment to prepare an advance

Effects of the Spanish Civil War

For Spain

  • Social
    • Human cost / casualties
      • 100,000 Republicans killed; about 70,000 Nationalists.
      • Killing continued after war in the ‘White Terror’ (Franco’s Giant Cumming Project in 1939) with a further 40,000–200,000 casualties
    • Concentration camps and prisons
      • Republicans and their sympathizers
    • Seizing of Republican children for ‘re­education’
      • Placed with Nationalist / Catholic families or sent to orphanages to be indoctrinated against the views and actions of their own parents
    • Long lasting divisions and hatred in Spanish society

 

  • Economic cost
    • Financial losses, economic problems
      • 10­15% of wealth destroyed
      • Per capita income 28% lower than in 1935
      • High inflation due to fighting of the war, and printing of money to finance it
    • Industrial destruction
      • 70% of Madrid’s factory machinery needed to be replaced
      • Communications systems, including tram network, needed to be rebuilt
      • Everyone is dead, there are no skilled workers + general labour shortage
      • Merchant shipping destroyed
    • Agricultural sector okay though, but remained inefficient, ineffective
      • Franco reversed Republican land reform → periodic unemployment for labourers, landowners refused modernization
      • Britain demanded repayment of debt, Germany wanted money for aid provided
        • Debt would remain until after WWI → opportunity for foreign (mostly US, Britain, France) influence
        • No modernization took place for 36 years

       

  • Political
    • Franco dictator
      • Exodus of Spaniards to neighboring countries, included intellectuals (teachers, lawyers, researchers, doctors and famous writers, poets, artists and musicians)
      • Those that remained had to conform to Franco’s authoritarian, Catholic and conservative views
    • Law of Political Responsibility (1939)
      • Made Republican supporters liable to punishment
      • Allowed seizure of Republican land → vast amounts of land to the state
    • Restoration of the power of the privileged class, control working class
      • Wage cuts
      • Outlaw industrial political activism
      • Employment for Republicans who had escaped imprisonment was impossible
      • Use of Civil Guard to preserve inequalities of social and working system in rural areas
      • Restart of the ‘era of the national church’
      • ‘The Catholic Church enjoyed a degree of state support that was much greater than at any time since the 18th century. Government and church combined to preach order, hierarchy and discipline.’ – Lannon
      • Church took up cause of workers; linked with their movements

○ End of Basques and Catalans for autonomy

   ■ Use of Catalan, Basque and Galician languages was forbidden and all power was centralized in Madrid

  • Suppression and removal of all political opposition → period of political stability
  • More unified than ever until WWII
  • Then Franco got kind of shakey
  • And then died
  • Europe shunned Spain until his death (after which democracy was restored)
  • For the world
  • Soviet Union and communism

○ Defeat in Spain undermined international credibility

■ Cynical contribution to Republican → divisions in left­wing +

disillusioned former supporters of the Soviet Union

■ Lost intellectual sympathy in the West

○ Accentuated Soviet and German tensions; pushed Soviet foreign policy away

from an alliance with Western powers

■ Stalin lost respect for Britain and France as allies against Hitler

(appeasement, and non­intervention, ultimate turning point was Munich

Agreement)

■ Began to look towards a Nazi German alliance

  • Hitler and Nazi Germany
    • Highlighted importance of air and land power
      • Effectiveness of applying air cover for ground troops in Blitzkrieg using the Italian defeat at Guadalajara as a point of reference
      • Testing of Luftwaffe, bullet resistant fuel tanks and discovered valuable things, e.g. need for radio contact in armored vehicles
      • Bombing seemed like a better idea (effective, to some extent)
    • Brought them closer to Mussolini’s Fascist Italy
      • Prevented a reconciliation between members of Stresa Front
    • British and French non­intervention + appeasement strengthened Hitler’s position
      • Also made Nazi Germany seem capable enough to defend the world from the biggest threat ever, in all eternity, the most evil, the most terrifying, the literal worst, the baddest, terrible­est, communism!!!
  • Britain and France
    • Spanish Civil War made them want less war
      • Lol
    • Polarized political nature of foreign intervention heightened threat of escalation into a general war and drove up support for appeasement
      • Continued pursuit of policy of appeasement and non­intervention actually encouraged Hitler to be more aggressive
    • Communism is still the biggest threat
      • Apparently were unable to see the Condor Legion
      • Are they blind? Do they have eyes?
  • The USA
    • Oh no! War! And death! :^(
      • Offered no tangible assistance
    • Strengthening of isolationist sentiment and shunned Spain
      • Excluded from the post­war recovery package for Europe, the Marshall Aid

 

As a cause of WWII

  1. . It emboldened Hitler by increasing his popularity at home and abroad.
  2.  Hitler drew closer to his former enemy, Italy.
  3. Hitler gained practical military lessons that he would later apply in the campaigns of 1940. It was a distraction for Britain and France and pushed the USA further into isolation
  4.  It fostered a new direction for Soviet foreign policy, meaning that there could be no broad alliance in Europe to contain Hitler.

 

CHINESE CIVIL WAR

CAUSES OF THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR

LONG-TERM

Early 20th Century China (1915-­1919)

  • Succession of Pu Yi (1908), only two years old at the time, resulted in Prince Chun ruling as a regent but was incapable of implementing essential reform
    • Increased taxation → upset the business classes
    • No socio­economic progress made
    • Succeeded in dismissing Jiang Jieshi
  • Double Tenth (1911)
    • A revolution to overthrow the ruling dynasty
      • The key tensions and issues that led to this revolution would also be significant in the causes of the civil war 15 years later: the impact of imperialism, anti­foreign sentiment and political weakness
    • Many provinces declared themselves independent of Beijing, and Sun Yixian was invited to be the President of the Chinese Republic at its establishment
    • Manchu attempts to suppress the rebellion failed, as the general of the Army, Yuan Shikai, arranged a deal with Sun Yixian to become the President in exchange for the end of Manchu rule
    • By 1912, Pu Yi had abdicated → end of the Manchus
      • At this point, the revolution was incomplete, as there was no real introduction of democracy and most former imperial officials kept their positions
      • Revolution was led by the military, with Chinese radicals, and not the middle classes
  • Yuan Shikai’s military dictatorship (1912-­1915)
    • Key tensions left unresolved and regionalism continued ­ barrier to united China
    • 1912: Sun Yixian reformed as the GMD
      • Aims:
        • Nationalism: to rid China of foreign influence, united China and to regain its international respect
        • Democracy: the people should be educated so they could ultimately rule themselves democratically
        • People’s livelihood: essentially ‘land reform’, the redistribution of land to the peasants and economic development
      • Sun moved Yuan from his power base in Beijing to Nanjing, attempting to undermine him, but Yuan was like, “No, what the FUCK are you doing.”
      • GMD was only a regional power in the Southern promises, that lacke the organization to mount an attack on Yuan
  • 1912: New Culture Movement
    • Scholars called for the creation of a new Chinese culture based on global and western standards, especially democracy and science
    • On May 4, 1919, students in Beijing protested the Paris Peace Conference giving German rights over Shandong to Imperial Japan, turning this cultural movement into a political one in what became known as the May Fourth Movement
  • 1913: Sun flees to Japan
    • Yuan abolishes regional assemblies in an attempt to centralize power → further alienation of the provincial powers especially as tax revenues were centrally controlled
  • 1915­-1921: Demands
    • Set of demands sent by Japan to the weak government of China, which would greatly extend Japanese control of Manchuria and of the Chinese economy
    • China responded with a nationwide boycott of Japanese goods; Japan’s exports to China fell 40%
      • The overall political impact of Japan’s actions were highly negative, creating a considerable amount of public ill will towards Japan, contributing to the May Fourth Movement, and a significant upsurge in nationalism
    • 1916: Yuan fucks up,, like really bad
      • “I’m the emperor.” ­ Yuan’s famous last words → loses the support of the military before his death 3 months later

 

  • Socio­economic factors
    • Under the rule of the imperial Manchu dynasty, the vast majority of the population were peasants.
      • Faced high taxes to fund Manchu dynasty
      • High land rents ­­ some peasants paid up to 80% of their harvest → unsustainable livelihood
      • Famines
        • Faced starvation due to subsistence farming techniques and natural disasters (floods and droughts) leaving them with barely enough to feed their families
        • Population grew without a corresponding increase in cultivated land area made famines more frequent ­ especially in the second half of the 19th century where the population grew by 8% but cultivated land area only increased by 1%
      • Unable to find refuge from poverty in the city
        • High unemployment due to better technology and cheap Western imports
  • Imperialism and anti foreign sentiment
    • European imperialist powers had humiliated and exploited China and caused the destabilization of China’s ruling Manchu regime
      • Infringement on sovereignty undermining Manchu regime by foreign powers
        • Britain defeated China in the mid 19th century in the Opium Wars, subsequently “carving up” the Chinese Empire into spheres of influence by the Europeans, Americans and later, Japanese
          • Imperialist powers had control over their trade, territory and sovereignty
          • Foreigners refused to abide by Chinese laws, and they had their own extra­territorial courts
        • Religious destabilization
          • Surge of missionaries in attempt to spread Christianity
        • Financial destabilization
          • Inflation and corruption made China unable to resist the influx of foreigners → rising nationalist sentiment and opposition to imperial power, who were convinced that the abdication of the emperor was necessary for the country’s modernisation and return to power
            • Boxer Rebellion (1899) ­ violent rebellion against Westerners which failed because they lacked modern weaponry
          • Japanese involvement
            • While subjugated by the West, they faced humiliation of defeat to Japan in the Sino­-Japanese War (1895)
              • Later, they lost more territory to Japan when it was part of the settlement in the Russo-Japanese War (1904­-1905)
  • Political instability
    • Taiping Rebellion (1850­-1864)
      • Religious and political reform movement in Southern China that expanded into a civil war between the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (rebels) and the Manchu dynasty
    • Self­Strengthening Movement (1861­-1895)
      • Period of reform in response to increasing Western power and influence in China, but failed to decide how to “strengthen” China → movement failed
      • The Manchus did not coherently support reform, leaving China to remain subjugated by the West
    • Boxer Rebellion (1899)
      • The popular anti­Western feeling turned into a widespread violent rebellion
      • BUT, it failed due to the lack of modern weaponry
        • Undermined the Manchu dynasty and exposed its weakness as the emperor had to employ foreign troops to crush rebellion
      • Overthrow of the Manchu dynasty
        • Manchus weakened both financially and politically by inflation and corruption
          • Corruption was widespread in both local and provincial government officials and tax revenue did not reach the central government
  • Regionalism (1916­-1928)
    • Death of Yuan removed the only unifying factor in China → the break up of China into small states controlled by warlords
      • Death of Yuan removed the only unifying factor in China → the break up of China into small states controlled by warlords
      • Constant war to expand territories, and therefore power and wealth → peasant suffering
      • No warlord was willing to relinquish his armies to the central government
        • The division of the country increased the sense of humiliation felt by many Chinese and, coupled with their desire to get rid of foreign influence, led to an increase in nationalism during the decade of warlord rule

The poor social conditions for the peasantry would set the grounds for the support the CCP would receive later

  • May Fourth Movement (1919)
    • Students led a mass demonstration in Beijing against the warlords, traditional Chinese culture and the Japanese
      • Triggered by Versailles statement, where Shandong had been given to Japan, giving the appearance that the Chinese had joined the Allies to be humiliated
    • Dedicated to change and the rebirth of China as a proud and independent nation
      • Inspiration from the Bolsheviks → Chinese Communist Party

Inspiration from the GMD ­ grew stronger due to warlordism

  • Death of Sun Yixian (1935) and subsequent events
    • Jiang Jieshi, a committed nationalist, took over the GMD after Sun’s death
      • Aims of GMD socialist in nature ­ proof of strong Soviet links (** not communist in nature) → Soviets would invest in the GMD, providing aid and assistance, with the goal of fostering good relationships with nationalist China
        • Over time, Jiang became increasingly anti­communist
      • Formation of CCP (1921)
        • intellectual without military strength initially
      • First United Front (1922)
        • GMD and CCP had the common goal of uniting China and freeing her from imperialism
        • The Northern Expedition (1926) was the First United Front’s first attempt to crush the warlords, and with great success; by 1927, the communists had Hangzhou, Shanghai and Nanjing, by 1928 Beijing, completing the mission in 2 years
      • GMD announced that it was the legitimate government of China and the new capital and seat of government would be Nanjing

 

 

  • GMD attacks the CCP
    • Jiang disliked the CCP
      • CCP garnered popular support
        • During the Northern Expedition, the communists had promised the peasants land → garnering local peasant support
        • Industrial workers liked them → able to organize workers risings
      • Jiang sympathetic to the landlords and the middle classes, the peasant attacks against the landlords to seize land in communist areas was unacceptable to him
  • White Terror (1927)
    • Jiang expelled all communists from the GMD, and his attacks on the communists reached a peak in the White Terror
      • The workers army (under Zhou Enlai) were shot ­ over 5000 communists
      • Similar attacks carried out in other cities, massacring over thousands of communists, trade unionists and peasant leaders ­ 0.25 million people killed
      • Shanghai massacre
  • KACHOW Civil war had begun!
    • By 1927, the CCP was nearly crushed
      • The failure to defeat the CCP in 1927 allowed for the CCP to build up its strength and emerge as much stronger in the Second United Front in 1927
      • The CCP was in a much better position to challenge the GMD in the second stage of the Chinese Civil War

 

PRACTICES OF WAR

(½  OF THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR 1927-1937)

  • The Jiangxi Soviet (1934)
    • The CCP retreated to Jiangxi to survive the GMD onslaught, which became known as the Jiangxi Soviet
    • Mao Zedong’s writing suggests that the White Terror was proof that the United Front was ultimately doomed (ergo that cooperation with the GMD would destroy the CCP)
      • Mao Zedong’s writing suggests that the White Terror was proof that the United Front was ultimately doomed (ergo that cooperation with the GMD would destroy the CCP)
      • Vast majority of Chinese were peasants, with 88% of the 500 million living in rural areas
    • His tangent ideology (Marxism → Maoism) placed the proletariat at the centre of the revolution (the army’s tactics were guerrilla warfare and land reform was to be carried out in areas of CCP control) was successful with the results of recruitment found in the Jiangxi Soviet
      • His tangent ideology (Marxism → Maoism) placed the proletariat at the centre of the revolution (the army’s tactics were guerrilla warfare and land reform was to be carried out in areas of CCP control) was successful with the results of recruitment found in the Jiangxi Soviet
      • These views were not shared by the Soviet Union, Comintern and more orthodox members of the CCP → ideological divide within the party →Comintern official Li Lisan launched an attack against the CCP
  • Five Encirclement Campaigns
    • Attempt to destroy the Jiangxi Soviet and the CP
      • Encircled the Reds and cut them off from supplies and resources
    • Forced the communists into the Hunan and Jiangxi provinces, where they focused on strategy and survival → building up military forces the Red Army
    • The Fifth Encirclement Campaign saw a force of 80,000 men, air cover and artillery, as a result of German advice. It was successful at Ruijin in 1934.
    • The Long March (1935)
      • Mao refused to surrender and decided to break the GMD’s lines and set up a new base, embarking on the Long March
        • The CCP trekked 9,600 km to Shanxi ­ took 368 days, 90% of the 90,000 communists died, but they broke through the encirclement in Jiangxi
      • Key events of the Long March:
        • Crossing the Xiang River (GMD territory)
        • Captured Zunyi with guerrilla tactics → Zunyi Conference, Mao declares himself leader and that his forces will “march north to fight the Japanese”
        • Disputes between Zhang Guotao, Mao Zedong and Zhu De (splitting of Red Army)
        • Songpan Marshes ­ loss of many men due to terrain, attacks by local tribes and ingestion of poisonous plants
        • Arrival at the Shanxi Soviet in October 1935, setting up a base in Yan’an
      • Outcomes of the Long March:
        • Ensured Mao’s position as the unchallenged leader
        • Ensured the CCP’s survival
        • Offered a defensible base in Yan’an
        • Propaganda victory for the CCP ­ March was an opportunity to spread their policies, recruit, won patriotic support for claiming to go fight the Japanese
        • Military experience for the CCP, especially in guerrilla tactics
        • Welded survivors into tight, dedicated group of fanatical revolutionaries
      • Second United Front (1937)
        • In 1931, Japan invaded China, taking over Manchuria, but Jiang only appealed to the League a he considered the communists a bigger threat
        • Mao calls for another United Front to fight the Japanese
          • Supported by everyone, including the northern warlords
          • comintern also, as Stalin was afraid of Jiang Jieshi as the only leader in China who was capable of effectively fighting the Japanese
        • Second United Front formally established in 1937, suspending the civil war → “National War of Resistance” (against the Japanese)
        • Outcomes:
          • GMD ­ lost patriotic support for not fighting the Japanese, aggravated by poor treatment of the peasants; benefited from support from the USSR and potentially from the USA
          • CCP ­ Mao’s offer to create a joint front with the GMD to fight the Japanese won the CCP popularity, allowing them to pose as true nationalists; gained legitimacy

 

( THE REST OF THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR 1946-1949)

The second stage of the war was more of an international affair with foreign intervention and the

polarization of international political context because of the Cold War.

  • US foreign intervention
    • US sought a diplomatic solution between the CCP and the GMD but neither side was willing to share power. General Marshall managed to get them to agree on the following terms:
      • Prepare to set up a coalition government
      • Form a temporary state council
      • United their armies into a national army
      • Have free elections for the local government
    • Both parties were not prepared to honor the terms of the agreement and continued to move troops into Manchuria (1946) even as negotiations were being made.
  • Initial GMD victories (1945­-1947)
    • GMD troops outnumbered the CCP and had better equipment + US troops
  • Subsequent CCP victories (1947­-1949)
    • General Marshall managed to get Jiang to agree to a truce, which worked to the CCP’s advantage as it spared them of a final assault on their headquarters and gave them time
      • Trained their forces to be ready for war
      • Introduced more land reforms which resulted in more peasants to joining the communists
      • The Red Army was now called the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and reverted to guerrilla warfare
    • Key events of 1949 leading to collapse of GMD resistance
      • January: PLA launches offensive against vital railway junction of Xuzhou → emerge victorious
      • Late January: CCP takes Tianjin, Beijing → controls northern China
      • April: CCP takes Nanjing
      • May: CCP takes Shanghai
      • October: CCP takes Guangzhou → Mao proclaims People’s Republic of China in Beijing
      • November: Crushing of remaining GMD resistance

ROLE OF FOREIGN INTERVENTION

 

  • USA
    • Ideological
      • Pre­existing ideological conflict between communism and democracy
      • Growing anti-communism movement in the US ­ McCarthyism
      • Preventing the rise of the CCP would be a major Cold War victory for the US
      • Fit with US foreign policy ­ Truman Doctrine (where the US directly intervene in countries that were at risk of falling to communism)
      • Marshall’s formation of the unstable but democratic Political Consultative Conference
    • Self-Interest
      • GMD’s ideology was nationalism ­ not compatible with capitalism and democracy
      • GMD lacked support from the US ­ only $27 million was given in the first few years and the $84 million given later on never made much of an impact
      • USA had already acquired an alternative base in Asia ­ Japan ­ when the strategic reason of acquiring China as a base had stopped, the intervention stopped as well
    • Military
      • Advisers provided training to the GMD during WWII but withdrew during the CCW due to growing anti­Americanism
      • Did not send troops
      • Imposed embargo (1946) to try and force a coalition government ­ on the assumption that the GMD had the clear upper hand
        • Lifted in 1947 and ask the GMD to pay for it
      • Gave American aerial transportation that was crucial in transporting its forces to the key cities of Beijing and Nanjing and the Manchurian cities
  • USSR
    • Ideology
      • Wanted a CCP victory → prove that communism was superior to the rest of the world’s ideologies
        • Wanted a CCP victory → prove that communism was superior to the rest of the world’s ideologies
      • Breach US containment policy ­ Truman Doctrine
      • Conflict between Russian and Chinese aims
        • Conflict between Russian and Chinese versions of communism ­the former thought that it should be based on the industrial workers while the latter felt that it should be based on peasants
        • Stalin wanted a divided China ­ would not pose a threat in the future → Stalin tried to convince Mao to cooperate with Chiang and stop at the Yangtze river and not pursue the GMd in 1949
      • Self-Interest
        • Intervened directly only to get hold of Manchuria → stripping of $2 billion worth of war booty → needed economic resources to reconstruct economy after WWII
        • Only limited aid given → little financial aid as the Soviet economy was not able to help
        • Ultimate evidence of self-interest → signed a treaty with Chiang in 1945 Sino-­Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance in 1945
      • Military
        • Gave CCP strategic advantage by withdrawing from Manchuria → gave CCP the Manchurian countryside
        • Sent Soviet advisers who taught the CCP logistics, strategy and tactics, armored and aerial warfare
        • Important because the Red Army was making the transition to being a conventional military but was a guerrilla force with untrained leaders
        • Did not commit troops
        • Provided large supplies of captured Japanese weapons to the CCP ­important because the military previously lacked modern equipment
        • Provided large supplies of captured Japanese weapons to the CCP ­important because the military previously lacked modern equipment

 

OUTCOMES OF THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR

WITHIN CHINA:

 

  • CCP consolidated control in China → formation of authoritarian state
    • Suppression of freedom of rights
      • Tiananmen Square protests were forcibly dispersed with guns and tanks but the state used the civil war to justify its actions
      • Society was militarized
      • Mao given a godlike status
    • Economy exhausted after many years of conflict
      • Agricultural peasants fell as peasants were taken to fight → food shortages
      • Industrial production fell
      • Worsened financial situation as GMD leaders took Chinese foreign currency reserves and then fled to Taiwan
      • CCP → rift in relations with the West, loss of trade and contact
    • Actions taken by CCP to consolidate communist rule
      • Strict regulation of the economy to control inflation → taxes increased and new currency, RMB, introduced
      • Confiscated GMD territory, foreign assets → redistribution to poorer peasants
      • Nationalized banks, transport industries, gas and electricity supplies
      • New system of government
    • Social changes
      • Emancipated traditionally oppressed women, gained right to divorce, vote, property rights, outlawed arranged marriages etc.
      • Women had to take over hard farm labor when the men went to fight
      • Change was slow but reforms provided legal and social framework for women to establish equal rights with men
    • Education changes
      • Rejected traditional Chinese education and teaching methods (but was not successful in breaking away from the model ­ “elite schools” still around which the children of high ranking party officials occupied)
      • Opposed Western influence
      • Heavy emphasis on testing, exams and physical education
      • University education focused on technical and scientific subjects­ a reflection of the country’s need for specialists
      • Overseas education consisted only of the USSR after its isolation from the West

INTERNATIONAL:

  • Asia
    • Korean War
    • Shifting of Cold War threat from Europe to Asia → inspired insurgents
  • USSR
    • Success of worldwide communist revolution
    • Stalin feared that Mao was a rival for leadership in the communist world
      • Tensions between Stalin and Mao
        • Stalin felt that Maoism was not “genuinely revolutionary” (a mix of Marxism and traditional Chinese culture)
        • Mao was convinced that Stalin wanted a weak and divided China so the USSR would dominate Asia
      • Still has close relations, Sino­Soviet Treaty of Alliance (1950) with close cooperation over construction projects and sharing of Soviet scientific technology
      • Relations cooled during Chinese aid in Korean War
        • But worsened again after Stalin died ­ Destalinisation was seen as an attack on Mao’s leadership style

 

  • United States of the AMERICA
    • Blamed CCP victory on lack of support for GMD
      • Passing of new military budget
    • Intensified Cold War and McCarthyism
    • Did not recognize the different types of communism or that USSR and China had increasing tensions and hostility
    • “One China Policy” ­ refused to recognize the PRC as a legitimate state
    • China and USA had a radical change in attitude and policy towards one another in the 1960s and entered a period of dialogue known as ‘ping pong diplomacy’ ­ the end of Cold War tensions and improved relations

LONG-TERM CAUSES

Historiography: David Bergamini (Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy, 1971) has argued that Japan had planned for war in the early 1930s and the Emperor had been involved. He argued that although Japan appeared willing to negotiate peace, this was cynically its plan to keep its enemies off guard. Many historians, thus, have claimed that Japan is a clear aggressor who had the aim of conquering Asia.

 

Timeline of events prior to the Pacific War:

1853- Commodore perry visits Japan

1902- Anglo-Japanese

1904- Russo-Japanese War breaks out

1915- the ‘Twenty-One Demands’ made on China

1919- Versailles Treaty confirms Japan’s war gains

1921- Japan participates in the Washington Conference

1926- Hirohito becomes Emperor

1931- Kwantung army invades Manchuria

1934- Japan abrogates the Washington Naval Treaty

Japanese relations with the West

  • Mid 17th century Japan was isolated
    • In an attempt to prevent the spread of christianity
      • Dutch traders were only allowed but still were very restricted
    • Politically, socially and economically Japan remained a feudal state
    • 1853 Mathew Perry negotiated Japanese laws for US ships to refuel
      • Isolationist mindset- Japan was impressed by the US gun boat
        • Realized stronger powers like China did not even have a match against the industrialized West
      • The treaty of Kanagawa (1954) allowed the US access to Japan
    • Shoguns could not control Japan efficiently so the power was given back to the Emperor (1868)
    • Meji became the emperor (1869)
      • Japan became a limited democracy and stripped the feudal system away
      • Rapidly industrialized
      • Introduced conscription in 1872
        • Adoption of German military practices
      • Japan became the first non-european civilization to be considered a power
      • Imperial growth fostered the idea that an expansionist foreign policy could be achieved if supported by a strong military
      • Only generals and admirals could be ministers for the navy
        • The government had influence over the navy at the start of the 21st century
      • Japan’s second victory was over Russia

 

Kens:

Pacific War:

Causes of the pacific war:

  • Invasion of Manchuria:

– On Sept. 18, 1931, the Japanese staged an incident along the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway near Mukden (Shenyang).

– Using the “Mukden Bridge Incident” as a pretext, Japanese troops flooded into Manchuria.

– Unable to divert forces from battling the Communists and warlords, Chiang Kai-shek sought aid from the international community and the League of Nations.

– On Oct. 24, the League of Nations passed a resolution demanding the withdrawal of Japanese troops by Nov. 16. This resolution was rejected by Tokyo and Japanese troops continued operations to secure Manchuria.

– In January, the U.S. stated that it would not recognize any government formed as a result of Japanese aggression.

– Like the U.S., the League of Nations refused to recognize the new state, prompting Japan to leave the organization in 1933.

  • Political Turmoil:

– After a failed attempt to capture Shanghai in January, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated on May 15, 1932 by radical elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy who were angered by his support of the London Naval Treaty and his attempts to curb the military’s power. – Tsuyoshi’s death marked the end of civilian political control of the government until after World War II.

– Control of the government was given to Admiral Saitō Makoto. Over the next four years, several assassinations and coups were attempted as the military sought to gain complete control of the government.

– On Nov. 25, 1936, Japan joined with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in signing the Anti-Comintern Pact which was directed against global communism.

  • Second Sino-Japanese War:

– The U.S., Britain, and France limited their support to war contracts prior to the beginning of the larger conflict. Public opinion, while initially on the side of the Japanese, began to shift following reports of atrocities like the Rape of Nanking.

– It was further swayed by incidents such as the Japanese sinking of the gunboat U.S.S. Panay on Dec. 12, 1937, and increasing fears about Japan’s policy of expansionism.

– U.S. support increased in mid-1941, with the clandestine formation of the 1st American Volunteer Group, better known as the “Flying Tigers.” effectively defended the skies over China and Southeast Asia from late-1941 to mid-1942, downing 300 Japanese aircraft with a loss of only 12 of their own.

– In addition to military support, the U.S., Britain, and the Netherlands East Indies initiated oil and steel embargoes against Japan in August 1941.

– Japan signed the Tripartite Pact effectively forming an alliance with Germany and Italy

  • Breakdown of Japanese and US relations:

– 1940 – US bans exports of scrap iron to Japan, Lend-Lease act to China results in 25 million. military aid (including aircraft)

– The American oil embargo caused a crisis in Japan. Reliant on the U.S. for 80 percent of its oil, the Japanese were forced to decide between withdrawing from China, negotiating an end to the conflict, or going to war to obtain the needed resources elsewhere. – Konoe asked U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt for a summit meeting to discuss the issues. Roosevelt replied that Japan needed to leave China before such a meeting could be held..

– While Konoe was seeking a diplomatic solution, the military was looking south to the Netherlands East Indies and their rich sources of oil and rubber. Believing that an attack in this region would cause the U.S. to declare war, they began planning for such an eventuality.

– On Oct. 16, 1941, after unsuccessfully arguing for more time to negotiate, Konoe resigned as prime minister and was replaced by the pro-military General Hideki Tojo.

– While Konoe had been working for peace, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) had developed its war plans – These plans called for a preemptive strike against the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, as well as simultaneous strikes against the Philippines, Netherlands East Indies, and the British colonies in the region.

– The goal of this plan was to eliminate the American threat, allowing Japanese forces to secure the Dutch and British colonies. The IJN’s chief of staff, Admiral Osami Nagano, presented the attack plan to Emperor Hirohito on Nov. 3. The emperor approved it, ordering the attack to occur in early December if no diplomatic breakthroughs were achieved.

  • Pearl Harbor:

– On Nov. 26, 1941, the Japanese attack force, consisting of six aircraft carriers proceeded with the attack on Pearl Harbor. After being notified that diplomatic efforts had failed.

– Using specially modified torpedoes and armor piercing bombs, they caught the U.S. fleet by complete surprise. Attacking in two waves, the Japanese managed to sink four battleships and badly damaged four more. In addition, they damaged three cruisers, sank two destroyers, and destroyed 188 aircraft. Total American casualties were 2,368 killed and 1,174 wounded.

– In response, the U.S. declared war on Japan on Dec. 8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Authoritarian States:

Adolf Hitler

COMPARE AND CONTRAST FOUND Under MAO

 

 

 

Authoritarian States: Hitler

 

Conditions in which authoritarian states emerged

 

Political

  1. Democratic government was seen to be linked with the betrayal, defeat and national humiliation of Versailles in 1919
    1. Article 231: The “War Guilt Clause” by which Germany and its allies were held responsible for the war leading to humiliation
    2. Germany lost 13% of its European territory, 12% of its population and all of its colonies
    3. Reparations of £6.6 billion were to be paid in restitution for the “loss and damage” caused by the war.
    4. Northern Schleswig became part of Denmark and Upper Silesia became part of Poland. The Saar was put under control of the League of Nations
    5. Germany’s army to be restricted to 100 000 men: no conscription, tanks or heavy artillery.
  2. Weimer Constitution – contributed to the collapse of the Republic – discredited parliamentary system that, due to instability and policy errors, produced disillusionment and frustration
    1. Proportional representation
  1. Encourages the formation of new, small splinter parties e.g. Nazis, making it difficult to maintain governments
  2. Negotiations involved in forming a government caused political instability
    1. Relationship between the president and the Reichstag
  1. Struggle to keep balance between the head of state and the parliament
  2. Article 48 – allowed the president to the authority to suspend civil rights in an emergency and restore law and order by the issue of presidential decrees
    1. Continuation of traditional institutions
  1. Civil service conformed to the old-fashioned conservative values of Imperial Germany
  2. Judiciary enjoyed its traditional independence, with many not supporting the Republic and being bias towards the extreme right
    1. Only 28 out of 354 right-wing assassins were found guilty and punished, but 10 of the 22 left-wing assassins were sentenced to death

Economical

 

  1. The economic crisis of 1923 – hyper-inflation – Great Inflation
    1. By November 1923 $1 was worth 4.2 trillion German marks
    2. A lof of bread which dost 250 marks in January 1923 had risen to 200,000 million marks in November 1923
    3. Consequences:
  1. Increased prejudice and tendency to find scapegoats
    1. Many blamed the reparations, or blamed it on the financial greed and corruption of Jews
  2. German with savings and those paid monthly lost the most
  • Middle classes fell into poverty – many never trusted the republic again
  1. Elderly suffered greatly as their income was set.
  2. Food shortages – businesses did not have enough to buy produce from farmers
  3. Rise in crime as Germans became desperate
  1. The Great Depression 1929 – people lost faith in the Weimer Republic
    1. By January 1932 unemployment was at 6.1 million
    2. Demand for exports collapsing and so Germany no longer was able to pay back, as their export trade fell
    3. American loans and investments dried up followed by the demand for the repayment of the short-term loans
    4. Reichstag election – NSDAP gained 95 seats from 1928 to 1930
  1. 1928 – 2.6% (12 seats)
  2. 1930 – 18.3% (107 seats)
  1. Treaty of Versailles: Loss of 16% of coal production, 48% of iron production, 15%of agricultural production, and 10% of manufacturing capacity
  2. French invasion of the Ruhr because Weimer Government stated they would be unable to pay the reparations
    1. In January 1923, the French and Belgian armies sent 60,000 soldiers into the Ruhr region of Germany and took control of key industries and natural resources

Social

 

  1. Anti-Semitism present
  2. The communists and many of Germany’s working class developed a hatred of the Social Democrats after the Spartacist Revolt
    1. In January 1919, 50,000 workers went on strike and demonstrated in the centre of Berlin.
    2. Over 100 workers were killed during what became known as ‘Bloody Week’.
  3. Class divisions
    1. The SPD was absolutely committed to radical reform of the German Reich and the conservative elites were absolutely committed to preventing them
    2. Social Democratic Party, (SPD) was finally established as a legal entity, it quickly became the most important socialist party in Europe.
  1. By 1912 it was the biggest party in the Reichstag and with over a million members by 1914, it was the largest political party in the world.
  1. The rise of extremism
    1. When people are unemployed, hungry and desperate, they turn to extreme political parties.
  1. Between 1930 and 1933 support for the extreme right-wing Nazis and the extreme left-wing commnists soared.
    1. By 1932 parties committed to the destruction of the Weimar Republic held 319 seats out of a total of 608 in the Reichstag
  2. The hostility of Germany’s vested interests
    1. Many key figures in German society and business rejected the democratic republic, working against the interest of Weimar

Consolidation and maintenance of power

 

Use of legal methods, force, charismatic leadership, and propaganda

Timeline

 

Gleichschaltung and the establishment of Führerstate 1933-34

Abolition of the trade unions, May 1933

Dissolution of all political parties except the NSDAP, July 1933

Party purge, Night of the Long Knives, June 1934

Absorption of state governments and replacement with centralized structure. GAU, KREIS, ORT, ZELL, BLOCK, July 1934.

Death of Hindenburg and personal oath of allegiance to Hitler by armed forces, August 1934.

Adolf Hitler Führer

 

Legal methods

 

  1. Hitler as a chancellor, appointed on 30th January 1933
  1. Strengths
    1. Leader of the largest party in Germany, therefore ignoring him did not work and forced the conservatives to work with him
    2. Nazi gained access to the resources of the state e.g., Göring was in the cabinet and also a minister of interior in Prussia, responsible for police. Allowing harassment of opponents and ignore Nazi’s crimes.
  2. Limitations
    1. Only two other Nazis in the cabinet: Wilhelm Frick, Hermann Göring
    2. Hitler’s coalition government did not have a majority in the Reichstag; therefore, it was difficult to introduce legislations
  • The chancellor’s post was dependent on the President Hindenburg
  1. Potential power of the army and trade unions
  1. Reichstag election, 5th March 1933
  1. Nazi increased their vote from 33.1% to 43.9%, securing 288 seats, however not able to change the Weimar Constitution which required 2/3 majority in the Reichstag
  1. Enabling Act, March 1933
  1. Effectively do away with parliamentary procedure and legislation and which would transfer full powers to the chancellor and his government for four years – a dictatorship would be legal
  2. The Act passed by 444:94 votes with Social Democrats voting against
  1. Gleichschaltung: Co-ordination – degeneration of Weimar’s democracy into the Nazi state system
  1. Nazifying of German society and structure, establishment of the dictatorship – secure its political supremacy
  2. Federal states – there were 17 regional states who were self-governing, which stood against Nazi’s desires to create a fully unified country
    1. Law of 31st of March 1933 – regional parliaments (Landtage) were dissolved and then reformed with acceptable majorities – allowed Nazis to dominate
    2. Law of 7th of April 1933 – created Reich Governors who were the local party Gauleiters with full powers
  • In January 1934 the process of centralization was completed when regional parliaments were abolished
  1. Political parties – Nazi aspired to establish authoritarian rule within one-party state, by removing every other party and NSDAP being the only one
    1. The Communists were outlawed since the Reichstag fire
    2. Social Democrats assets were seized, and they were banned – 22nd of June
  • Other parties willingly agreed to dissolve – June 1933
  1. The Catholic Centre Party gave up – 5th of July 1933
  1. Trade unions – hostile to Nazism, posing a threat to Nazi’s stability
    1. Deceived by hopes of collaboration with the Nazi
      1. Nazi declared 1st of May to be a national holiday for the celebration for international socialist labor
        1. However, later trade unions premises were occupied by the SA and SS, union’s funds were confiscated, and leaders were arrested, independent trade unions were banned
      2. German Labor Front (DAF – Deutscher Arbeitsfront) – all German workers’ organizations were absorbed into DAF
        1. Acted as an instrument of control – lost the right to negotiate wages and conditions of work
      3. Success
        1. The process was well advanced in many areas of public life in Germany
        2. However, failed to influence churches, army and big business
  • Civil service and education were partially co-ordinated, due to Hitler’s determination to shape events through ‘revolution from above’
    1. Yet, there were many in the lower ranks of the Party contributing to the ‘revolution from below’ wanting to extend the process of co-ordination
  1. When Hindenburg died, Hitler was able to merge the position of a chancellor and president, and become a Führer

 

Use of force

 

 

  1. Between 500 and 700 political murders took place between March and October 1933. Many by the SA.
  2. The Night of the Long Knives
  1. Power struggle: SA and the Army
    1. The Army’s traditional role and statues felt threatened by the SA
      1. Could unseat Hitler from his position of power, possessed military skills which were needed for his foreign aims, professional expertise and discipline
    2. SA was concerned with Hitler diluting the ideology of National Socialism gave a rise to a second revolution
      1. Led by Ernst Röhm, which wanted social and economic reforms and the creation of a ‘people’s army’ merging the Germany army with the SA – attractive to the left wing socialist, radical Nazis, less with conservatives
    3. Hitler wanted to assume the presidency without opposition, therefore needed to secure the army’s backing
      1. The army did not want the second revolutions, people’s army
    4. 30th June 1934 – eliminated the SA – approx. 200 murdered
      1. Röhm and main leaders of SA were shot
      2. Schleicher (former chancellor) and Strasser (leader of radical socialist wing of the Nazi Party) were both killed
    5. Significance:
      1. German army had aligned itself behind the Nazi regime – Blomberg’s public vote of thanks to Hitler on 1 July, German soldiers agreed to take a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler
      2. SA was rendered and almost unarmed with no role in the political development of the Nazi state
  • Allowed the emergence of SS – the Army has failed to recognize their power
  1. Hitler secured his own personal political supremacy – his actions were accepted – legalized murder – clear that the Nazi regime was not an authoritarian one but a dictatorship

Charismatic leadership

  1. Hitler was able to adapt his party for gain
  1. He worked with other parties to gain power and worked with Zentrum to pass the Enabling Act
  2. To be backed up by the Centre Party for the Enabling Act, in his speech of 23rd March Hitler promised to respect the rights of the Catholic Church and to uphold religious and moral value.
  1. Hitler’s speeches appealed to a large audience for the content (often repetitive and with little detailed information about the solutions to complex problems) as well as their performance.
  1. Mass suggestion, appealing ideas
  1. Collaboration with existing interest groups (big businesses/industrialists) as well as other political parties (BVP/DNVP)
  1. On meeting with 20 industrialists, he was promised 3 million Reichsmarks

 

Dissemination of propaganda 

  1. Demonization of Jewish people.
  2. Reichstag Fire – on 27th of February the Reichstag building was set on fire by a Communist, van der Lubbe
  1. Eliminated the KPD communists
  2. Allowed him to pass the Enabling Act
  3. Opportunity to imprison many communists’ leaders
  4. Allow him to say that the country is in danger from the communists
  1. “Appeal to the German People” speech of 31st January 1933 where he blamed the democratic government and terrorist activities of the Communists on the poor economy
  2. Writers were permitted to produce work and publish it as long as it conformed to one of four main categories:
  1. Fronterlebnis – front experience, which emphasized German heroism in battle and the bonds established by the common experience
  2. Works promoting the Nationalist Socialist Weltanschauung, as reflected in the outpourings of the Führer
  3. Heimatroman – regional novels, stressing the uniqueness of the German spirit
  4. Rassenkunde – ethnology, which stressed the superiority of the German/Aryan race over all others.
  1. Canvassing – posters and leaflets
  1. Specific leaflets were produced for different social groups and Nazi speakers paid attention to the concerns of the audience
    1. Peasants – offering special benefits to offset the collapse of agricultural prices
    2. Unemployed – overcoming the depression and offering slogans about “Work and bread” after the Great Depression
  • Mittelstand (middle class) – limiting the control of large department stores
  1. Industrialists – playing down the fear of nationalization and state control of the economy
  1. Technology – radio, film shows, torchlight processions, mass meetings, use of loudspeakers, banners and ‘Hitler over Germany’ campaign of 1932
  1. Cheap radios – the Volksempfiinger or “people’s receiver” – were mass produced, ensuring that the message of National Socialism was broadcast to the population.
  1. Mass suggestion – mass rallies – creating emotional atmosphere so the members of the crowd succumb to the collective will
  1. Used uniforms, torches, music, salutes, flags, songs, anthems, speeches
  1. Unifying themes – portrayed Nazis as revolutionary and reactionary
  1. Führer cult – Hitler was portrayed as a messiah-type figure, offering authoritarian leadership and a vision for Nazi Germany’s future
  1. Scapegoats – denounced and blamed for Germany’s suffering
  1. ‘November criminals’ – politicians responsible for the Armistice and creation of the Republic became representative of all aspects associated with Weimar democracy.
  2. Communists – fears of communism, increasing threat of Communist USSR
    1. The fear of the left by big business as well as the Catholic Church which led them to support the NSDAP
  3. Jews – present anti-Semitism in Europe for a long time already

Nature, extent and treatment of opposition

Opposition from the KPD 

  1. Leaders who were not arrested flew to Paris to build opposition, and those who remained organized some form of resistance
  1. Leaflets, underground newspapers, raising red banners, circulation of the official Party newspaper Die Rote Fahre
  2. No serious armed insurrection
    1. Anti-Nazi propaganda printing did little to threaten Hitler’s state
    2. Continued arrests sapped moral and open protests were minimal
  1. In August 1939, when Moscow and Berlin signed a non-aggression pact, KPD members found themselves faced with a dilemma: the National Socialist enemy had suddenly become involved in a friendship agreement with the USSR.
  2. While KPD communist exiles in Moscow urged industrial sabotage to halt the Nazi war effort,
    such attempts were on a small scale and often unsuccessful.

 

Opposition from the SPD

  1. The SPD deputies who attended Reichstag and voted against the Enabling Bill only voted against the passage
    1. The party was officially banned, funds confiscated, and leadership removed
  2. Specific groups emerged inside Germany to carry out anti-Nazi propaganda (for example, Red Shock Troop/Der Rote Stosstrupp and New Beginning), the numbers involved were small and by 1938 these groups and their activities, which proved little more than irritants to the Hitler regime, were arrested.
  3. SOPADE was unable to mobilize mass opposition and, while some small socialist opposition groups remained below the radar of the Gestapo, the very nature of their low-level activities and secrecy of meetings to ensure safety was not conducive to promoting serious resistance.

 

Opposition by the military

  1. In August 1934 the military submitted Hitler with an oath of personal loyalty.
    1. The support however was ‘bought’ by visions of a Nazi foreign policy, that rejected the military restrictions of Versailles and the removal of Röhm threat.
    2. As military numbers grew so did of officers committed to Nazis, and the influence of professional officer class diminished
  2. Opposition grew and groups within military became allied with conservative German politicians who disagreed with persecution of Churches and anti-Semitism
    1. Individual army leaders who questioned Hitler were dealt with in 1938
  1. Field Marshals Blomberg and Fritsch were forced to resign
    1. Hitler became the Supreme Commander of the armed forces, continuing the Nazification of the army
  1. Many military members were bound to their personal oath and did not challenge Hitler
  1. General Ludwig Beck plotted a coup against the regime in 1938, assembled a group and made contact with a British Prime Minister who lacked support rendering any coup impractical.
    1. Nonetheless Beck would continue working against Nazis with a conservative politician after, Goerdeler.
  1. By 1941 Beck-Goerdeler group began to organize a network of military and conservative nationalist supporters against Hitler, however amidst the war it was difficult to mobilize support. Especially with military success which bred support for the regime.
    1. The group was able to contact the British and US officials, after Germany’s loss, however they viewed the group suspiciously. They thought that the plans after Hitler were more autocratic and the group was not so much anti-Nazi but an attempt to avoid defeat and invasion by the Soviet Union.

Opposition from the Catholic Church

  1. Political Catholicism disappearance was achieved through false promises on the part of Hitler
    and short-sightedness on the part of the Catholic Church
    1. Gleichschaltung envisaged not only the elimination of political opponents but also the taming and subjugation of religious institutions.
  2. When Catholic bishops, in a pastoral letter in August 1935, publicly protested against what was described as a “new paganism” sweeping the state, it was already too late.
    1. The state found no major difficulties confronting a religious institution that had effectively dismantled its political parties in 1933
    2. At the same time as giving respectability to the Nazi regime when it appeared to have Vatican approval.
  3. Pope Pisu XI in 1937 March sent an encyclical (a papal letter sent to all bishops of the Catholic Church) entitled “With Burning Anxiety”
    1. Was less an attack on the policies of National Socialism towards minorities and persecution of political enemies than a criticism of Nazi breaches of the Concordat in relation to the Catholic religion in Germany.
  4. Catholic Church failed to provide any organized resistance to the state.

 

Opposition from the Protestant Churches

  1. Protestant Church organizations, with the backing of a group known as the “German Christians”, attempted to transform the Church into one preaching a specifically German national religion in the service of the Nazi state – a Christianity stripped of study of the Old Testament
    1. This Reichskirche (Reich Church) was short-lived: Evangelical ministers resented and resisted the political machinations used to elect Muller and formed the Confessing Church under the leadership of Martin Niemoller.
    2. In 1934 they held a synod of the Confessional Church in Barmen, and the resulting Barmen Declaration rejected the “false doctrine” of the Reich Church
  2. Most clergy remained silent on the increasing persecution of the Jewish population and the aggressive nature of Nazi expansionism.
    1. Those who did speak out were interned in concentration camps

Youth/student opposition

  1. The Edelweiss Pirates were resistant, but their activities (occasional leafleting, adopting nonconformist dress and listening to “non-Aryan” music) were more examples of “youthful disobedience” than political resistance.
  2. “White Rose” group began circulating flyers calling for passive resistance to the state the flyers, especially after the German army’s disastrous defeat at Stalingrad, emphasized the need for peace
    1. For many Germans, the thought of betraying the nation by harming the war effort at a critical stage was unacceptable.

 

The impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power

Solve Germany’s economic problems

 

  1. Remilitarization of the Rhineland – Hitler needed to distract German’s unrest from rising prices and food shortages, while British and French were occupied with their crisis.

Prepare for war

  1. Non-aggression pact with Poland – secured his eastern frontier and weakened France’s security system in the Eastern Europe as France signed an alliance with Poland to keep pressure on Germany’s eastern borders.
  2. Spanish Civil War – supported the Nationalists through e.g. transporting troops from Morocco to Spain.
    1. Needed a friendly government in Spain to supply Spanish mineral resources, and provide military bases for Germany
    2. Able to test out their air forces and see the effects on civilians, able to pose as defender against communist threat, a pro-Fascist government in Spain would undermine French security
    3. Distracted West and Britain’s failure led Hitler to believe he wouldn’t face opposition to expansion
  3. Rome Berlin Axis – Hitler and Mussolini corporation meeting mutual interests
  4. Anti-Cominterm Pact – stated that in case of an attack by the Soviet Union, Japan, Italy and Germany would consult on measures to safeguard their common interests
    1. Rome Berlin Axis and Anti-Cominterm Pact indicated that Germany was no longer an isolated player but an important one on the world stage

 

Expansion of Germany

  1. Mussolini and Austria 1934 – meeting was unsuccessful, and Mussolini was not impressed by the unification of Austria and Germany. Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazi Party and intended to go with a coup d’état, however Mussolini mobilized troops and showed strength against Germany. Hitler backed down and had to wait to unify Austria as he needed Mussolini’s support against Western democracies. 
  2. Saar Plebiscite 1935 – success for Hitler as 90.9% voted (fairly) that Saar should return to Germany
    1. Could reinforce propaganda and the growing power and strength of Germany and Nazi’s popularity
  3. Remilitarization of the Rhineland – important in strengthening Germany, to build fortifications to prevent an attack from France.
  4. Anschluss – Hitler and Mussolini corporation meeting mutual interests, and Hitler was able to sign an agreement with Austrian Chancellor to be the German state

 

Undo the Treaty of Versailles

  1. Withdrawal from the disarmament conference – France refused reducing their armaments to Germany’s level and Hitler pulled out of the Disarmament Conference in 1933 and League of Nations.
    1. This gave him the freedom to launch an assault on the rest of Treaty of Versailles.
  2. Rearmament – he continued to train the army and build aircraft on the grounds that Britain and France failed to disarm, and he needed to protect himself from the Soviet Army.
  3. Remilitarization of the Rhineland – Rhineland was taken during the Treaty of Versailles

 

Aims and results of policies

Aims and impact of domestic economic, political, cultural and social policies

Economic

  1. Public works
    1. Jobs arose from government-inspired public works projects and in heavy industries (arms production)
    2. Autobahn constructions, building houses, schools, hospitals, canals, bridges, railways
    3. Establishment of RAD (State Labour Service) which gave cheap and regimented labour to promote Germany’s recovery
  1. Labour battalions and work camps ensured authoritarian control over the recruits, who worked mainly on the land but also on building projects and were subject to Party political indoctrination in the camps
  2. Service became compulsory in 1935
  1. New Plan of 1934
    1. Schacht introduced controls on imports which now had to be approved by the government.
    2. Initiated a series of bilateral trade agreements through which Germany paid for food and raw materials with German Reichmarks which could only then be used to buy German goods.
    3. Aimed at improving Germany’s trade deficit
  2. Use of ‘Mefo’
    1. To finance rearmament.
  1. Companies that supplied goods or services to the government were given these Mefo bills which they could then exchange for cash at the Reichsbank.
  2. However, there was an incentive to delay asking for this cash as there was a 4% per annum interest on the bills if they kept them for five years.
    1. Impacts
  1. Prevented the danger of inflation by reducing the cost of government expenditure.
  2. Allowed the rearmament program to go unnoticed as the expenditure did not show up in government accounts.
  1. Göring’s Four-Year Plan
    1. The plan heralded a major expansion in war-related industrial production.
  1. To bring Germany to political and economic self-sufficiency
  2. To make Germany fit for war
    1. Impacts
  1. The projected goals of the plan were not reached, although in specific areas such as aluminium production, explosives, coal, and mineral oil the increases were impressive.
  2. The failure to produce a strong war economy capable of withstanding any long-term conflict helped shape the Blitzkrieg military tactics
    1. Relied on quick victories in the hope of gaining much-needed resources before committing to subsequent campaigns, rather than a war of attrition for which Germany was unprepared.
  • Noakes and Pridham estimate that by 1939 Germany was still reliant on external sources for around one-third of its raw materials.
  1. The revival of the economy in the field of war production took place at the expense of consumer goods production.
    1. Real wages of German workers were less impressive than the statistics the regime publicized concerning Germany’s production of pig iron, steel, machinery, chemicals, and other commodities for rearmament purposes
    2. Shortages of consumer products and wages frozen at 1933 levels
    3. There was employment

 

Political

  1. Führerprinzip – concept dictating that the will of the Führer was above the law and all legal institutions
    1. This reflected in the way that authority was exercised.
  1. For example, the principle of elections and selection through merit was replaced by appointment based on ideological suitability and loyalty.
  2. Existing hierarchical systems were also reinforced, for example in schools all power was vested in the head teacher. And everywhere, individuals of ambition were encouraged to struggle for positions of authority.

Gleichschaltung see Legal methods in Consolidation and maintenance of power

Cultural

  1. Hitler saw modern art as ‘degenerate’ and over 6,500 works of art were removed from display across Germany.
    1. Hitler encouraged ‘Aryan art’ instead, which showed the physical and military power of Germany and the Aryan race.
  2. Hitler was very interested in architecture and believed it could be used to project the power of the Nazi regime. The most important architect of the period was Albert Speer, who redesigned Berlin, as well as designing the stadium in Nuremberg where annual rallies were held
  3. Nazis burned thousands of books in 1933 that were viewed as being subversive or as representing ideologies opposed to Nazism.
    1. These included books written by Jewish, pacifist, classical, liberal, anarchist, socialist, and communist authors.
  4. Nazi Party gradually took over film production and distribution.
    1. A state-run professional school for politically reliable film-makers was founded, and membership of an official professional organisation (Reichsfilmkammer) was made compulsory for all actors and film-makers.
    2. The Nazi leaders often used film stars, like Lil Dagover, to help promote the popularity of the party in Germany.
  5. In classical music, works by Jewish composers like Mendelssohn and Mahler were banned and the works of the German composer Wagner were promoted, gaining huge popularity.
    1. The Nazis were strongly opposed to jazz music, which they referred to as Negro music and called it degenerate.

Social

Youth

  1. Educational system
    1. Aimed to indoctrinate the young was undertaken in order to produce end products imbued with the race consciousness of the movement and absolute loyalty to the regime.
    2. In schools, curriculum changes placed emphasis on sports, biology, history, and “Germanics”. 
  1. Sports were meant to produce bodies ofcapable of physical contribution to the nation
  2. History was used to promote the greatness of Germany’s past, struggles of National Socialist movement in its efforts to destroy the “evil legacy” of a degenerate and incompetent Weimar republic, and the dangers of Bolshevism (and its “Jewish backers “)
  • Biology teaching included emphasis on race and eugenics (the science of improving a population through controlled breeding)
  1. “Germanics” included the study of language and literature with the aim of proving the superiority of Germans as a “culture producing” race as opposed to “culture-destroying” races such as Jews
  1. In March 1939 membership was compulsory in youth groups
    1. NSDAP aimed to monopolize the life of the young, to wean them from parental to party control in order to maximize the opportunities for indoctrination.
    2. Hitlerjugend for boys
  1. Membership gave access to a variety of activities: for boys, camping and hiking expeditions, sport, music, attendance at rallies, and military training provided via specialized air and naval sections
    1. Bund Deutscher Mäde for girls
  1. Membership gave physical fitness and domestic science in preparation for marriage and childbearing.

Women (see The impact of policies on women and minorities; Women)

Minorities (see below The impact of policies on women and minorities; Minorities)

 

The impact of policies on women and minorities

Women  

  1. Impact: Hitler assigned women to traditional roles and status in the society
  2. Increase number of births
    1. Introducing the Law for the Encouragement of Marriage which gave newlywed couples a loan of 1,000 marks, and allowed them to keep 250 marks for each child they had
    2. Giving an award called the Mother’s Cross to women who had large numbers of children
    3. Ensuring contraception was difficult to obtain
    4. Making abortion illegal in 1933
  3. Ensure that Germany women only married suitable Aryan men
    1. Allowing women to volunteer to have a baby for an Aryan member of the SS
    2. Passing the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour of 1935, which forbade marriages between Aryans and Jews, people of colour and Roma.
  4. Ensure women were fit and healthy to ensure that they were suitable for childbearing
    1. Sport in the BDM was intended to create healthy, strong girls who were fit for child-bearing and produce multiple children
    2. Anti-smoking and anti-alcohol was encouraged.
  1. Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls disseminated antismoking propaganda
  1. Restrict opportunities in education to ensure that they concentrated on preparing for their proper role
    1. Women’s access to higher education, restricted in 1933, was now permitted because the economy and the regime required increasing numbers of professionals, in the medical and teaching professions especially
  2. Keep women out of the key professions and politics
    1. Introduction of the Law for the Reduction of Unemployment, which gave women financial incentives to stay at home
    2. Not conscripting women to help in the war effort until 1943

 

Minorities

Mentally and physically handicapped

  1. Programmes of sterilization and euthanasia would eliminate ‘hereditary defects’ that were considered to be an obstacle to the building of a healthy Aryan race
    1. Many Nazi scientists believed in eugenics and selective breeding
  1. They believed that people with disabilities or social problems were degenerates whose genes needed to be eliminated from the human bloodline
  1. Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring
    1. Compulsory sterilization – not allowing people to reproduce
    2. Law listed conditions such as congenital feeblemindedness, schizophrenia, manic depression, alcoholism as grounds for sterilization.
  1. Whether some were actually hereditary was questionable – and in the case of feeblemindedness the definition was so vague that it could be used to punish those deemed to have exercised poor judgment in their support for, or membership of, the KPD.
    1. Between 1934-45 there were 320 000-350 000 sterilizations
  2. Euthanasia for those suffering from incurable and resource-consuming disabilities
    1. The T-4 programme resulted in 72 00 deaths
    2. Officially was halted in 1941, however murders of ‘biological outcasts’ in concentration camps continued

Beggars and the homeless

  1. Beggars were classified into “orderly” and “disorderly” categories by the state
    1. Registered and issued with permits that required them to undertake compulsory work on the state’s orders in exchange for accommodation and boar
    2. Fixed routes were introduced so that their whereabouts could be monitored
  2. Homeless were given detention in camps and sterilization was imposed on many
  3. Beggars and homeless people were arrested, and many were detained in Buchenwald. An estimated 10 000 of the homeless were imprisoned, of whom few survived

Homosexuals

  1. Paragraph 175 of the Reich Criminal Code, which made “indecent activity” between adult males illegal
    1. homosexuals suffered penalties much more brutal than those previously imposed.
    2. Paragraph 175 was revised in 1935 by the regime with the intention of broadening the definition of “indecent activities” as well as increasing terms of imprisonment for “offenders
  2. Identification and registration of homosexuals by the Gestapo produced records of approximately 100 000 “criminals” by 1939
  3. After the outbreak of war, detentions of homosexuals in concentration camps increased
    1. Between 5000 and 15 000 homosexuals were imprisoned,

Biological outsiders

  1. Mischling (part gypsy) were considered a threat to be dealt with by their incarceration in camps where they would be made to work, pending the prevention of the continual procreation of this half-breed population
  2. Gypsies were transferred to special camps at Auschwitz and elsewhere.
    1. Many of those transferred became victims of Nazi medical experimentation, and half a million were murdered

Jewish population

  1. In 1933:
    1. Nazis organised a boycott of Jewish businesses
    2. Books by Jewish authors were publicly burnt
    3. Jewish civil servants, lawyers and teachers were sacked
    4. Race science lessons were introduced, teaching that Jews were sub-human
    5. Civil Service Laws – this law had a severe impact on the middle-class Jews in Germany and led to increased numbers of Jews emigrating.
  2. The Nuremberg Laws, 1935 – deprived Jews of German citizenship and forbidding intermarriage and sexual contact between Jews and “citizens of German or kindred blood”
  3. Anti-Semitic decrees, 1938
    1. Jews could not be doctors
    2. Jews had to add the name Israel (men) or Sara (women) to their name
    3. Jewish children were forbidden to go to school
  4. Reichkristallnacht or The Night of Broken Glass, November 1938
    1. On the night of the 9th, party radicals attacked 7,000 businesses and destroyed 267 synagogues as revenge for the shooting of a German Embassy official by a Polish Jew
    2. Official party figures reported ninety-one Jews killed but many more died due to arrest and imprisonment. Many also committed suicide
    3. Jews were forced to pay compensation for the destruction of property themselves and to forfeit their insurance claims
  5. Reich Office for Emigration, 1939 – their purpose was to expel Jews from Nazi-controlled areas
  6. Holocaust 1941-5
    1. Attempted genocide of European Jewry in areas under Nazi control and the occupied territories
    2. 1940: Jewish people were forced to leave their homes and go to live in ‘ghettos’, where they were forbidden to earn a wage. Many starved to death.
    3. 194: following the invasion of the Soviet Union, Nazi death-squads, called Nazi Einsatzgruppen, murdered more than a million Jewish people in eastern Europe.
    4. 1942: Wannsee Conference: Nazis decided on the Final Solution – the Jewish people were to be systematically taken to camps such as Auschwitz and gassed.
    5. 1944-45: The Death Marches: As the Russians advanced, the SS guards marched the Jewish people to concentration camps in the west. Many Jewish people died on the marches. Many were killed because they could not keep up. When they reached camps such as Bergen-Belsen in West Germany, they were crammed in in such numbers that they died of starvation or disease.
    6. 6 mln Jews approx. died during the Holocaust

 

Hitler & the Rise of the Nazi party

The Munich Putsch, 1923

  • Nov 1923, Hitler believed Nazi’s strong enough seize power
    • Took cue form hyper-inflation that begun as consequence of French occupation of Ruhr
      • Denied Germany access to most economically productive region
        • Between Jan-Oct 1923, value German market fell from 7,590 per USD to 4,200,000,000,000
      • Hitler, General Ludendorff attempted to seize power in Munich
        • Nazis marched govt offices, Bavarian police fired on marchers
          • Hitler arrested, tried for treason, sentenced to 5 yrs imprisonment

 

  • Authorities embarrassed by rumours that number of officials implicated in putsch
    • Showed sympathy towards Hitler
      • Was released less than a yr later
    • Hitler behaved arrogantly during trial
      • Didn’t regard putsch as failure
        • Had provided opportunity to spread Nazi propaganda, vowed his time would come again
      • Putsch became piece of Nazi lore, celebrated annually as “Martyrs Day” in honour of 16 marchers who had been killed in rising

Mein Kampf

  • Hitler used time in prison to write Mein Kampf
    • Mixture of autobiography & ideology
    • Expressed main political ideas
      • Conviction that politics was dialectical – struggle between irreconcilable opposites
      • Belief in Germanys destiny as a Aryan nation to destroy Jews & seize Slav lands of the east
      • Hatred of communism
      • Belief in power of state as central social organisation
      • Conviction that women were subordinate to men & shouldn’t engage in politics

Hitler’s change of strategy

  • Once out of prison 1924, Hitler changed strategy
    • Still relied on violent street tactics to silence opposition
    • Presented Nazi movement as constitutional party to voters, wanting to win power democratically
      • Although despised democracy, prepared for expedient reasons to use Weimar’s system

Hitler’s power struggle within party 1925-1930

  • Hitler’s change of approach upset some Nazi members
    • Hitler found himself involved in power struggle within Nazi party
      • Major opponents, brothers Otto & George Strasser
        • Led minority group, believed Nazi’s should be more socialist in approach, openly oppose capitalism
      • Strasser’s attacked big German industrialists, argues Nazis should develop closer relations with anti-capitalist SU
        • Hitler believed idea would undermine NSDAP

Influence of the Great Depression

  • Hitler and party would have made little progress if not for Germany’s economic crisis
    • 1920s German economy recovered well from post-war difficulties
      • Survived hyper-inflation of 1923
        • Industrial output grew considerably, number unemployed workers fell
          • Nazis made little progress
            • German commentator remarked ‘If the sun shines once more on the German economy, Hitler’s voters will melt away like snow.’

 

  • By 1930, Germany felt full effects of Great Depression
    • Workers laid off, shops & businesses closed, banks collapsed
      • Weimar govt had no answer
        • Protective policies adopted led to retaliation by other countries, produced higher unemployment in Germany
          • Eg restricting foreign imports

 

  • Gave Nazi’s new relevance, saved them from being an impotent, fringe party
    • Nazi party’s record in early elections to Reichstag unimpressive
      • Not until 1930 percentage of vote reached double figures
        • Nazi’s able to exploit economic difficulties that had started to threaten Germany’s stability

 

Hitler’s rise to power 1929-1933

 

  • 1929-1930 withdrawal of US loans & export market collapse, significant repercussions for Germany
    • ‘Grand Coalition’ formed, under Chancellor Mueller 1928
      • Unemployment rates went up significantly
        • 2 mil in 1929 to 4.5 mil in 1931 and nearly 6 in 1932
      • Around 1/3 all Germans, no regular wages
        • Was fuel for extremist parties, mocked govt’s inaction & made wild promises for future
          • Eg Nazi’s, Communists

 

  • Nazis played on claim to be “national party”
    • would keep out communism
    • uphold law & order
    • restore national strength
    • return to traditional middle-class values
      • Had no formula to fulfil promises & end slump

 

  • March 1930, break-up of Grand Coalition, 5 reichstag elections in 3 yrs
    • Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen & Kurt von Schleicher struggled rule without parliamentary majorities
      • Were propped up by use of president’s decree powers

 

  • Nazis kept up pressure
    • Historian Alan Bullock
      • “a display of energy, demand for discipline, sacrifice, action and not talk.”
    • In Reichstag election Sep 1930, Nazis had 107 seats
      • Huge increase on previous 12
      • Hitler made capital out of presidential elections 1932, challenged von Hindenburg, forced 2nd vote

 

  • Reichstag elections July 1932, Nazis won 270 seats, became largest German party
    • Only had 37.3% of vote, had less than outright majority
      • Were financially exhausted after 2 elections in quick succession
    • Hitler refused offer of vice-chancellorship
      • Found it difficult to restrain SA, who believed should seize power by revolution

 

  • Nov 1932 election, Nazis declined to 196 seats
    • Suggested electoral fortunes had peaked
    • Joseph Goebbels, director of propaganda from 1929
      • “This year has brought us eternal ill luck. The past was sad, and the future looks dark and gloomy; all chances and hopes have quite disappeared.”
    • KPD 89 seats in July, increased vote by 17%, now 100 seats in Nov
      • Was to Nazis advantage that communists refused to cooperate with SPD (had 121 seats)
        • Encouraged KPD’s to turn to Hitler

 

  • Chancellor von Papen considered using army as prelude to adopt new constitution
    • Was opposed by von Schleicher, feared civil war
    • Hindenburg tried to prop up von Papen’s govt, proved impossible
      • Dismissed von Papen, turned to von Schleicher to form govt
        • von Schleicher chancellor Dec 1932

 

  • Von Schleicher hope to lure more left-wing ‘socialist’ element of Nazi party, under Gregor Strasser, away from mainstream Nazism
    • Coalition with SPD under his control, & potential party split added to Hitler’s anxieties
      • Hitler demanded & won ‘total obedience’ from his followers, Strasser resigned
      • Von Papen angry, was encouraged to look to Hitler as potential ally in Nazi-nationalist coalition
        • By 28 Jan 1933, Hindenburg no option but to dismiss von Schleicher & turn to von Papen again
          • Both knew future govt involved Hitler

 

  • von Papen & Hindenburg convinced that Nazis in decline and was right time to harness energies
    • believed Nazi party still strong enough to counter threat from left but Hitler’s position too weak to threaten elite rule
      • prepared to offer Hitler chancellorship, with 2 Nazi cabinet posts for Wilhelm Frick & Hermann Goering as well as 9 nationalist ministers

 

  • Hitler summoned Jan 30 1933 to head govt with von Papen as deputy
    • Were all content with ‘backstairs intrigue’
    • Von believed would be able to push Hitler ‘into a corner’ within 2 months
    • Hindenburg little idea of consequences

 

  • Hitler called for immediate lections, mounted another massive propaganda campaign
    • Was helped by Reichstag Fire 27 Feb 1933
      • Gave excuse to blame communists & ask Hindenburg to issue emergency decree, ‘for the Protection of People and State’, 28 Feb
        • Nazis able to remove opponents before elections took place as had power to search, arrest & censor ‘until further notice’

 

  • 5 March 1933, Nazis gained 43.9% of total votes
    • Left Hitler reliant on other parties to obtain 2/3 majority needed to change constitution
      • Conservative DNVP (won 8%) offered support, but deal had to be struck with Catholic Centre Party who had won 11.2%
        • Committed Nazism to protect church
          • Emergency decree use to expel all communists from Reichstag

Benito Mussolini

2.3.1 Origins and nature of Mussolini’s Fascist Italy

  • Italian politics
    • The Risorgimento nationalist movement succeeded in creating a unified and independent Italy but had several underlying problems leaving the process Incomplete.
      • Politics was dominated by liberals that were afraid of the influence of the left (socialists, anarchists, republicans) and the right (church), restricting voting to 2% of the adult population
    • German resentment at this restriction, aggravated by corruption
      • Transformismo: Politicians making deals with one another to alternate political control due to lack of mass parties and party discipline →undermined parliamentary democracy before 1922.
  • Regional divisions
    • Italians felt more loyalty towards their own town or region that towards the national government
    • Social inequality
      • Fertile lands were part of large estates (latifundia) owned by a small minority of wealthy landowners, vast majority of population was extremely poor
    • Poor communication in mountain ranges hindered development of national

identity amongst population; South was neglected due to lack of railway and road

 

Impact of WWI and peace treaties (1914 ­-1919)

Italy remained neutral in WWI as the Entente nations promised that they would grant Trentino,

Trieste, along with other territories.

  • The Treaty of London
    • Italy promised to join the war on the side of the Triple Entente
    • Associazione Nazionalista Italiana (ANI) was Italy’s first right wing nationalist party, formed in 1910. It supported war against Austria as a way of gaining the terra irredenta. The ANI grew close to Mussolini’s Fascist Party, and merged with it in 1923.
  • Involvement in WWI
    • War did not go well for Italy, they were ill equipped and ill­-supplied
      • Poor military leadership lead to the Italy fighting a costly war of attrition
      • Italian officers often sacrificed thousands of lives needlessly­ in all, over 600,000 Italians were killed, about 450,000 permanently disabled, and a further 500,000 seriously wounded
    • Economic impact
      • To finance its involvement, the government had borrowed heavily from Britain and the US, causing national debt to rise from 16 to 85 billion lire.
      • They also printed more banknotes, causing rapid inflation between 1915 to 1918, destroying the savings of the middle class, rental incomes for landowner, and wages for workers.
      • Economic situation worsened at the end of the war when war industries closed down with the demobilization of 2.5 million soldiers, giving rise to high unemployment
      • The war deepened economic divisions between north and south Italy, where the north was able to pass on inflation to the government while the agricultural south was hit badly
        • The government promised reform to limit the appeal of Bolshevism, which, not surprisingly, did not come
      • Peace treaties and the ‘mutilated victory’
        • Italy did not gain as much as expected. It received no African territory, or even Flume and northern Dalmatia
          • Vittorio Orlando’s (the Italian prime minister) inability to secure all of Italy’s territorial expectations at Versailles was used by Mussolini and their fascists in their campaign to demonstrate the weakness of the Italian government.
          • Italian nationalists were also disgusted by the terms of the peace  agreements, accusing the liberal government of allowing Italy to be humiliated and cheated

 

In which Mussolini begins to try (1919-­1920)

 

Emergence of new parties

 

  • Italian Popular Party (Populari) was a Catholic political party
  • Italian Socialist Party (PSI)
    • Economic problems resulting from the First World War caused great discontent among industrial and rural workers, moving this party into a more revolutionary position
    • Biennio rosso (‘the two red years’)
      • The surge of unemployment in 1919­1920 lead to a wave of militant action from the industrial workers
      • In many areas, especially in the north, socialists seized control of local government. To industrialists and landowners, it seemed like a communist revolution was about to begin.
      • The government, headed by Giovanni Giolitti, didn’t do much, believing that the workers were not a threat and that militancy would soon decline, encouraging the employers and landowners to make concessions.
        • The lack of government action would lead many middle and upper classes to view that the government as dangerously incompetent.
      • Arditi (‘the daring ones’)
        • Demobilised and unemployed officers and troops who hated the liberal political system which they felt had betrayed their wartime sacrifices by failing to obtain the land promised to Italy.
        • Many formed across Italy, with increasing use of weapons to attack socialists and trade unionists whom they regarded as enemies of the Italian nation.
      • Fascio di Combattimento (‘the combat group’)
        • In March 1919, Mussolini­ himself as a member of the Arditi ­ tried to bring these disparate groups together → Fascio di Combattimento
        • They intended to bring together nationalists and socialists, publishing the Fascist Programme in 6 June 1919 combining various left and right wing demands.
        • These nationalists, syndicalists, artists and ex servicemen were eventually united by their common hatred of the liberal state

Gaining support

 

When elections for seats in the Italian government were held using a system of proportional

representation for the first time, not a single member of Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento was

elected. He was really sore over only winning like, less than 2% of the Milan vote.

 

  • Fiume
    • Gabriele D’Annuinzio led 2000 armed men into the city of Fiume, an area Italy had sought but not received in the peace treaties. In open defiance of the liberal Italian government and the Allies, they ruled the city for the next 15 months.
    • This bold action inspired Mussolini, who adopted some of D’Annunzio’s tactics, e.g. black shirts, their Roman salute, and using parades and balconies for speeches
  • Unrest of biennio rosso boosted the Fasci
    • Offered to send action squads to help factory owners in the north and landowners in Po Valley and Tuscany, who were pleased to give money to these groups in return for the violence against the left
      • Burnt down offices and newspaper printing works belonging to the socialists and trade unions in northern and central Italy
      • Made attempts to destroy the influence of peasant leagues.
    • The growing alliance with industrialists, bankers and landowners who would finance the building of a mass base for the Fasci among the middle and lower­middle classes, who feared a socialist revolution.
      • However, their support lacked belief in any coherent political ideology and rather supporter violence and hatred of the socialists.
    • In September 1920, factory occupations (in the north) + agrarian strikes and land occupations (spreading towards central Italy) + socialists winning control of 26 out of 69 Italian provinces → increased the fear of upper and middle classes of a communist revolution who then turned to the Fasci, who provide successful in suppressing leftist action.

 

  • Mussolini
    • Realised the potential (political, financial) opportunities offered by a more organized use of Fasci action squads.
    • Privately reassured Giolitti and other liberal politicians that talk of a fascist revolution was not to be taken seriously, and as a result, was allowed an electoral alliance for the national elections to be held in May 1921
    • During which, fascist violence continued, and 100 socialists were killed
    • The surrender of D’Annunzio’s Fiume to government military action increased support for the Fasci, and also removed a potentially powerful rival for him.

In the May 1921 national elections, the Fascists won 7% of the vote and taken 35 seats, with

Mussolini is now a deputy (and all other deputies from the right wing). The socialists remained the

largest with 123 seats; and Popolari with 107.

 

  • Positions in parliament gave fascists an image of respectability as well as a foothold in national politics.

 

Mussolini then announced, “Fuck Giolitti.”

 

 

Mussolini tries harder and succeeds in with his efforts (1921­-1922)

 

Political instability (1921­1922)

 

  • Aimed to convince the industrialists, landowners and the middle class of several things:
    • That the liberals were finished as an effective political force
    • That there was a real threat of socialist revolution
    • And that the fascists were strong and determined enough to take necessary action, to restore order and dignity to Italy
  • 1921-­1922: Weak coalition governments
    • Collapse of the coalition formed between the Popolari and Giolitti, created after Mussolini denied him fascist support.
    • Followed by three weak coalition governments, none of which managed to take effective action against industrial struggles and political violence.
  • Appeal to political elites, conservatives
  • During benio rosso, the police and army officers often turned a blind eye to fxascist violence, sometimes even providing them transport. This attitude changed and the police managed to disperse over 500 fascists at Saranza, north­west Italy
  • Easy dispersal was evidence that the fascists were a party unable to impose law and order.
  • Growing worries of alienation of the conservative elites, and subsequent unification of anti­fascists.
    • Fascist Programme (1919)
      • Aimed at increasing fascist support among conservatives, especially since the new pope, Pius XI, had blessed the fascists’ banners
      • By the end of 1921, many shopkeepers and clerical workers were now in support of the fascists.
    • Dual policy throughout 1922
      • The local ras still continued to endorse the violence of action squads, and the dual policy was required to avoid a split in his party. He made it known to the conservatives that he had no intention seizing power with violence.
      • Street fighting in areas under fascist control resulted in the police supporting the fascists, as the socialists looked as if they might win.
    • Trying even harder
      • A dispersal of a general strike called by the fascists in July 1922
        • impressed the conservative middle classes
        • This led to renewed contract between Mussolini and the former liberal prime minister to discuss the possibility of the fascists entering a coalition government
      • Used this incident to prove that the socialists were still a threat and, more importantly, a threat that only the fascists could stop.
        • In September, Mussolini declared he was no longer opposed to the monarchy.
        • Further increase fascists’ respectability

 

  • Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF)
    • Pact of Pacification signed between the moderate socialists and main trade union organization → Angered the ras, who were then outmaneuvered when Mussolini resigned, and then persuaded the Fasci members to reform into the PNF.
    • In 1921, Mussolini was able to persuade the Fascist National Congress to elect him as leader. He then ended the Pact of Pacification and ordered all branches to organize action squads.
      • Mussolini could now present himself as the clear and undisputed leader of an organized and united political party

 

The March on Rome (October 1922)

 

  • The ras made it known that they would march to Rome and seize power, with or without Mussolini’s support
  • Mussolini thus needed to appease his more militant supporters (and also intimidate the liberal government into making more concessions) through his participation.
  • On the night of 27 October, fascist squads took over town halls, railway stations and telephone exchanges across northern Italy. The following day, prime minister Luigi Facta persuaded the king, as commander in chief of the army, to declare a state of emergency.
  • Mussolini was to be arrested.
  • But he wasn’t.
  • The King, Victor Emmanuel III, changed his mind, refused to sign the papers authorising martial law. He then asked the conservative Salandra to form a government who advised the king to appoint Mussolini as prime minister.
    • Mussolini owes this chum a lot. More than his fascist militia.
    • Claims that he refused to sign the declaration of martial law because he could not depend on the army’s loyalty to him, though assured that if faithful, would be able to disperse the fascists. (Historians question his motives, though)

 

  • Mussolini accepts the post on 29 October 1922
    • Whatever the king’s motives, Mussolini had become prime minister by legal, constitution means­ assisted by the fascist violence on the streets
  • He then took a train to Rome (his metaphorical ‘march’ at the head of the fascist

columns), where he partied with the other fascists in the streets of Rome

2.3.2 Mussolini’s consolidation of power; end of regime

1922-1924

 

Early Moves

○ In November 22, Mussolini delivered his first speech to parliament, where he

■ Made a veiled threat about the strength of the fascists (300,000 members)

■ Spoke of the desire to create a strong and united Italy

■ Requested emergency powers to deal with Italy’s economic and political

problems, which he was granted, by the deputies, including ex-­prime

ministers Giolitti, Saladra and Facta.

 

 

○ Appointment and establishment of new councils

■ The liberal Alberto de Stefani was appointed as finance minister. His

economic policies, which entailed the reduction of government controls on

industry and trade and cutting tax, appealed to the industrials and

Shopkeepers.

■ The Fascists Grand Council was established to be a supreme

decision making body in the party, which only Mussolini had power to

appoint people to.

■ Formed the regional fascist squads into a militia, the National Security

Guards (MVSN), which swore loyalty to Mussolini, not the king. This

would be useful against anti­fascists and also considerably reduced the

power of the ras.

■ His announcement that no serious measures would be taken against tax

evasion won the support of wealthy companies and individuals; the

the employer’s organization pledged its support for him.

■ In 1923, the small Nationalist Party (a member of the coalition) merged

with the Fascist Party, giving them additional paramilitary forces.

 

○ The Vatican

■ Mussolini announced measures that included renouncing atheism, making

religious education compulsory, banning contraception and punishing

swearing in public places, prompting the Pope to withdraw support for the

Poplari.

 

○ Winning the April 1924 Elections

■ Acerbo Law: A new electoral law that gave the party or alliance that won

the most votes two/thirds of the seats in parliament, as long as the

percentage was no less than 25% of the votes cast → Fascists gaining

total, legally acquired, control over Italian politics

■ The Corfu Incident → More support

■ Ceka: Secret gang of thugs meant to terrorise anti­fascists in italy and

abroad → 🙂

 

○ Matteotti Crisis (1924)

■ In May 1924, Giacomo Matteotti (socialist) called fraud on the election

results, and then he was killed. By the Ceka. And people found out. Which

caused Mussolini’s support to deteriorate.

 

1925-1928

  • Roberto Farinacci

○ Mussolini assumed ultimate responsibility for Matteotti’s murder. Nonetheless, he made it clear that, rather than resigning, he would continue to rule Italy­ by force  necessary

○ In 1925, his buddy Farinacci took over while he fell ill. Farinacci launched a new wave of violence, and purged the PNF of members and local leaders who were considered insufficiently loyal.

  • Local government and kissing his own ass

○ When he recovered, he imposed a series of laws to control the press, fascist only.

○ Elected mayors and councils of towns and cities were replaced by appointed Fascist officials known as podesta, conservatives drawn from traditional landowning and military elite, excluding the militant fascists over power.

○ Then he banned meetings by opposition parties  In December 1925, Mussolini started getting control of the central government. He declared himself ‘head of government’, assumed the power to issue decrees without parliamentary approval, making him responsible only to the king. Then there was a new law saying that the king had to get Mussolini’s personal approval for ministerial appointment.

  • Creating a one party state

○ After a failed assassination attempt on Mussolini in October 1926, he expelled all non­PNF deputies and banned their parties from the Chamber

■ Trade unions were outlawed

■ The Special Tribunal, a new court, was established to deal with political offences and carried the death penalty.

■ OVRA was a secret police force charged with suppressing political opponents.

○ Changed the electoral system so that only men aged 21 and over who belonged to fascist syndicates, ensuring that Italy remained a one party state.

  • Other less important things

○ In 1925, he set up OND, a national recreational club, hoping to increase the acceptance of fascist ideology. Many Italians enjoyed the subsidized activities (increasing his support base) but local organizers tended to ignore the indoctrination aspects.

○ The process of l’inquadramento was the use of agencies and networks to lead to party contact, hoping to increase the membership of the party. Did not dramatically increase membership.

■ eg. Welfare agencies during the Great Depression providing extra relief;

the women’s fasci, to help run them.

○ The Romanita movement portrayed fascism as a revival of, and a return to,

ancient Roman civilization to build up the prestige and popularity of Mussolini.

 

A bunch of shit happened from the late 1920s­1940. Then, Italy’ entry into WWII in 1940 led to

increased opposition to Mussolini, and his downfall in 1943.

 

Mussolini was eventually captured and shot by partisans in 1945.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.3.3 Mussolini’s domestic and foreign policy

Economic

Aims

  • To help Italy achieve greatness by increasing its land area (reclamation), having a strong currency, and striving for autarky.
  • To achieve a corporate state in which a partnership would exist between the state and private economic enterprise in the form of “corporatism”.

Main policies

               Battles

  • Battle for grain
  • Battle for Lira
  • Battle for Births
  • Battle for Land
  • Battle on Southern Problem

               State intervention

  • Using public money to prevent the collapse of banks and industries
  • Setting up of the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction (IRI)
  • Job Sharing schemes
  • Degree of success (largely unsuccessful)
    • The Battle for Grain did not achieve its aims (increasing grain outputs to reduce foreign imports, enabling Italy to be self sufficient in wheat)
      • Placed too much emphasis on the production of wheat, causing the misallocation of resources
      • Italy now had to import olive oil
      • Export of fruit and wine also declined
    • Battle of Land managed to reclaim only The Pontine Marshes (limited success).

The farming itself, financed from public funds, created work for the unemployed.

Just a little bit.

  • Battle of Lira overvalued the Lira → Italian exports expensive → decline in exports (e.g. cars) → unemployment
    • Undermined free trade and traditional finance policies adopted by Mussolini.
    • Recession worsened the effects of the Great Depression
  • Battle for Births unsuccessful (birth rate declined instead of increasing)
    • One third of Italy’s paid workforce remained female despite women being encouraged not to take paid employment
  • Likely that the state interventions were unsuccessful also
    • The IRl eventually helped in the formation of huge capitalist monopolies by selling off parts of industries it controlled to relevant larger industries (still under private ownership) → unsuccessful in achieving corporatism

Religious

  • Aims
    • Reconciliation between state and church
      • Long history of disputes
      • Good relations would provide stability and security for the state and also allow Mussolini to focus on establishing control over other more important aspects of the state e.g. economy, education, foreign policy
      • Beneficial to the church → Fascist state able to enforce religion

 

  • Key policies adopted
    • Restoration of Catholic education in state primary schools (mostly to encourage the papacy to end its support for the Popolari)
    • Lateran Agreements (1929)
      • Granted Vatican City sovereignty under the rope, who would recognise the Italian state, and its possession of rome and other formal papal states
      • Cash money as compensation for the loss of Rome
      • Concordat: Defined the role of Catholicism in the fascist state. Catholicism would be the sole religion of the state, Catholic education would be made compulsory, Church marriages would be granted full validity. Divorce without church consent was barred.
  • Degree of success
    • Mussolini gained support of the church, originally a long­time enemy of the government, who supported him as II Duce. The church also emerged strengthened.
    • Overlaps in interests between the church structure completely intact if not strengthened, aiding the church in its inevitable opposition in the future. While Mussolini was able to win the support of the church in the short term, he was never able to fully control it.
    • Non Believers had Catholic education forced onto them, which was considered a suppression of basic human rights.

 

Racism + Anti-Semitism

 

  • Aims
    • Mussolini claimed that ‘prestige’ was need to maintain an empire, which required a clear ‘racial consciousness’ that established ideas of racial ‘superiority’
    • Though he did dismiss anti­Semitism as ‘unscientific’ but the attitude changed, I guess idk
  • Key policies adopted
    • Charter of Race (1938)
      • Manifesto claimed to offer a ‘scientific’ explanation of fascist racial doctrine, based on the fact that Italians were ‘Aryans’. Jews were therefore not Italian.
      • Implementation of racial laws and decrees that excluded Jewish teachers and children from all state schools, banned interracial marriage, and restricted ownership of property (large companies, or landed estates)
      • Expulsion of foreign Jews, including those with citizenship
  • Degree of success (largely unsuccessful)
    • Never fully implemented; Italians ignored policies, strongly opposed by the pope and other senior fascist.
      • Any extreme forms of racial persecution was carried out by the German Gestapo and SS.

 

Propaganda

  • Aims
    • Propaganda was used in the hope of creating an obedient nation that would be unable to threaten his authority or oppose his policies. This would give him a free rein to do as he wished.
  • Key policies adopted
    • Creation of a personal dictatorship over a party dictatorship
    • State controlled newspapers
    • L’Unione Cinematografica Educativa (LUCE)
    • Education system and youth propaganda
  • Degree of success
    • Media control and censorship was not so successful
      • Although a state radio was set up, there was only one set up for every 44 people in Italy tried to establish control over newspapers, the Fascists papers never had more than 10% overall circulation.
      • However fascist propaganda found success in Italy in various forms. Public address systems set up in cafes, restaurants and various other public squares ensured that Italians were constantly hearing Mussolini’s speeches
      • All public events such as mass rallies and meetings were consciously turned into political theater, with full use being made of lighting and music. This not only added to the theatrical impact of Fascist propaganda methods, but also helped to create a modern image for them.
  • Attempts at regulating films, plays, music radio programmes and books were not successful as the traditional liberal culture proved too strong for the fascists to control.
    • Education reforms failed to widen their support base
      • Their concentration on traditional, classical education (especially in the early years of fascism) and introduction of exams made it hard for children to progress to secondary school → this alienated ordinary people whose children were struggling to progress academically and caused to a narrowing of the Fascist support base.
    • loopholes which allowed school children to escape fascist ideals
      • Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was made compulsory for all children aged 8­21, which carried out political indoctrination and physical training.However, 40% of children managed to avoid membership of these groups.
      • Private and Catholic schools tended not to enforce membership and children who failed to qualify for secondary school avoided indoctrination in school.
      • There was large contempt for fascist ideas and even some resistance to it in the universities.

Women and birth rates

  • Aims
    • To increase the Italian population to enable Mussolini to amass a large army capable of restoring the former glory of Italy (conquer a large empire similar to that of Rome).
    • More specifically, he wanted to boost population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950.
  • Key policies implemented
    • Rocco Criminal law (1932)
      • Banned contraception, sterilization and abortion
      • Also increased husband’s authority over wife in legal and financial terms
    • Restriction of female employment
      • To 10% of jobs (1933) and even in private firms (1938), hoping to encourage women to stay at home and contribute to population growth and look after the family
    • Taxation policies to encourage large families
      • Rewarded pregnancies and gave maternity benefits
      • Bachelors had to pay extra taxes while couples with 6 or more children were granted tax exemption
      • Newlyweds were given cheap railway tickets for their honeymoon
    • Homosexuality was outlawed in 1931.

 

  • Degree of success (not really good)
    • Policies were mainly unsuccessful. Despite the campaign to boost population, birth rates dropped throughout the 1930s and 40s
    • Women formed a third of the workforce as more men were hauled into arms industries
    • These policies were repressive towards Italian women as a whole and did not succeed in encouraging people to boost population.

 

Foreign policies (not really,, nothing interesting happened)

Aims

 

  1.  Mussolini wanted to establish a modern Roman empire in the Mediterranean.
  2. A successful foreign policy might distract Italians from domestic problems
  3. . Mussolini was disappointed with the small territorial gains from WWI, and the humiliating and ‘mutilated peace’ of the TOV.
  4.  Fascist ideology preached national glory.

How he do what he do

 

  • 1920s: Mussolini tries to achieve foreign policy aims by diplomacy, and is cautious
    • Corfu incident (1923)
      • Mussolini listens to the League, and under pressure from Britain and France, withdraws after receiving compensation from Greece
    • Pact of Rome (1924)
      • Signed between Italy and Yugoslavia, granting Italy Fiume.
      • Significant boost to Mussolini’s internal prestige
    • Locarno Treaty (1925) + Kellogg­ Briand Pact (1928)
      • Believed they would help in the reversal of the TOV

 

  • 1930s: Mussolini becomes friends with Hitler, and begins pursuing a more aggressive foreign policy
    • Preventing Anschluss attempt (1934)
      • Abyssinian Crisis (1935­1936)
      • Full invasion of Abyssinia, as revenge for a previous Italian attempt at annexation
    • Rome­Berlin Axis (1936) and Spanish Civil War
      • Mussolini supported Franco with troops and equipment, much like Hitler,bringing the two dictators closer together
    • Munich Conference (1938)
    • Pact of Steel (1939)
      • Formal military and strategic alliance between Italy and Germany
    • Entrance to WWII, where they suffer heavy defeats in North Africa

 

 

Successes and Failures

 

  • The 1920s diplomacy generally boosted Mussolini’s image, as they were portrayed as amazing successes internally through the use of propaganda
  • Involvement in the SCW can be considered as a success even though the Italian military suffered huge losses
    • Boosted Mussolini’s prestige, spread of further fascism in Europe (rise of Franco) and contributed to the creation of the Rome­Berlin axis, which was an alliance between Germany and Italy.

 

Overall failure to achieve his foreign policy aims, and Italy could not compete with the other

powers anyway.

 

Mao Zedong

Big man MAO 

Overview:

  • Mao concerned w/ Japanese expansionism, ruling elite, west exploitation of China for political and economic gain
  • The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) emerged after the failure of chinese to regain territory during the versailles peace conference (led to the may 4th movement)
  • Internationalism of Communist theory contradicted nationalism of the Chinese
  • China affected by the Second World War in Asia and tensions of early Cold War
  • The Chinese Civil War (1946-1949) was both lost by the GMD and won by the CCP

Good ol’ fashioned year 9 lvl timeline:

1900: The Boxer Rebellion

1911: The “Double Ten” Rebellion

1912: China becomes a republic

1912-1916: Presidency of Yuan Shikai

1916-1927: Warlord Era

1919: May Fourth Movement

1926: The United Front

1926-1927: Northern Expedition

1928-1934: Jiangxi Soviet

1930: The Futian Incident

1930-1934: The Five extermination Campaigns

1934-1935: “The Long March” (CCP)

1934: The Zunyi Conference
1936: The Xian Incident

1937: The Second United Front

1937-1945: Sino-Japanese War (WWII)

1945: GMD-CCP race for territory formerly held by the Japanese

1946-1949:Chinese Civil War

1945-1947: GMD supported by the U.S. military

1946: Red Army renamed People’s Liberation Army (PLA)

Jan. 1949: Chiang Kaishek fled to Taiwan – declares it as “Republic of China”

Oct. 1949: People’s republic of China (PRC) established

 

 

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