IBDP History HL Paper 3 -Modern Developments in Ethiopia, Niger, Somalia, Tunisia, Zambia and Zimbabwe (circa 1945–2020) - Study Notes- New Syllabus

Impact of External Involvement

📝 Introduction

• The syllabus focuses on international rivalries, destabilization by outside forces, neocolonialism, the African Union and the United Nations.
• External involvement could support economic development, humanitarian assistance and conflict resolution.
• It could also increase political instability by supporting authoritarian governments, rebel groups or proxy conflicts.
• Neocolonial relationships could limit African control over natural resources, trade and political decision-making.
• African and international organizations had both successes and limitations in responding to conflict and social problems.
• Examination answers must focus on one prescribed country: Ethiopia, Niger, Somalia, Tunisia, Zambia or Zimbabwe.

🌐 International Rivalries and Destabilization

The markschemes identify the Cold War as a major source of external involvement in Africa. The United States and the Soviet Union provided military, economic and political assistance to governments and opposition movements.

Ways international rivalry could increase instability included:

• Superpowers supplied military aid that enabled governments to suppress internal opposition.
• Military assistance could encourage governments to attack neighbouring states.
• The United States and the Soviet Union used African allies in proxy conflicts.
• Superpowers supported rebel groups operating against governments allied with their rival.
• External intervention could delay political settlements and prolong warfare.
• Foreign support could protect authoritarian governments from domestic opposition.

The markschemes emphasize that the superpowers frequently had little interest in the long-term political stability or development of the countries in which they intervened.

External involvement did not always increase instability. Some governments received economic assistance in exchange for their political support. This assistance could contribute to stability by funding development and strengthening state institutions.

⚔️ External Support and Internal Conflict

Outside forces could influence the survival or collapse of governments. A non-democratic regime might fall because of external intervention, while another could remain in power because foreign forces provided military, financial or diplomatic support.

• Foreign aid could strengthen one side in a civil war.
• External ideological influence could intensify internal political divisions.
• Foreign interference or the threat of invasion could encourage the establishment of a single-party state.
• Outside powers could influence alliances, diplomatic positions and domestic leadership.
• Foreign support for competing ethnic or political groups could intensify conflict.

The impact of foreign involvement therefore depended on the purpose of the outside power, the type of assistance provided and the way domestic governments or movements used that assistance.

💼 Neocolonialism

Neocolonialism refers to continuing external economic or political influence after formal independence. The markschemes present both harmful and potentially beneficial consequences.

Negative effects identified in the markschemes include:

• Loss of national control over natural resources.
• Loss of tax revenue.
• Unfavourable trade terms.
• Dominance by foreign enterprises.
• Decline of local industries.
• Reduced living standards and poor working conditions.
• Pressure on governments to enter particular alliances or trade agreements.
• Foreign influence over diplomatic positions, political systems and national leadership.

Potentially positive effects include:

• Foreign investment in infrastructure.
• Development of training facilities.
• Creation or expansion of industries.
• Access to capital, skills and technical knowledge.
• Improved communication and transportation.
• Greater trade and access to external markets.

Foreign investment could therefore promote growth while also increasing dependence. Evaluation should consider who controlled the investment, who received its benefits and whether it strengthened long-term national development.

🌍 African Union and Its Institutional Background

The markschemes discuss the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the institutional predecessor replaced by the African Union. This provides the required basis for assessing the problems inherited by the African Union.

The OAU’s principal objectives included:

• Ending the remaining forms of colonialism in Africa.
• Opposing apartheid in South Africa.
• Promoting cooperation among independent African countries.
• Encouraging economic development.
• Strengthening regional cooperation and political integration.
• Developing a stronger African identity within international institutions.

Successes identified in the markschemes include:

• Support for independence movements and opposition to minority white governments.
• Development of a stronger African identity in institutions such as the UN.
• Some progress in regional cooperation.
• Participation in conflict-resolution efforts.
• Efforts to reduce the effects of conflict, including refugee crises.

Limitations identified in the markschemes include:

• Failure to prevent many conflicts between and within African states.
• Limited success in improving human rights and living conditions.
• Limited achievement in economic development and political integration.
• Internal divisions and disagreements among member states.
• Conflicting national ambitions and Cold War divisions.
• A policy of non-intervention that restricted action against civil wars and interstate conflicts.

The markschemes specifically identify the OAU’s inability to prevent civil war in Somalia and conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea. They also indicate that the replacement of the OAU by the African Union can be interpreted as evidence of the need for institutional change.

When assessing the African Union, answers should evaluate whether continental cooperation helped address conflict and instability or remained restricted by national interests and disagreements among member states.

🇺🇳 The United Nations

United Nations involvement included peace operations, humanitarian assistance, state reconstruction and the work of specialized agencies.

UN specialized agencies identified in the markschemes include:

• UNESCO: education and World Heritage Sites.
• FAO: action against hunger.
• UNIDO: promotion of industrial development.
• ILO: international labour rights.
• WHO: health.
• UNHCR: assistance connected with refugees.

The impact of these agencies should be evaluated by considering whether their activities produced meaningful improvement and whether their work reached the people and regions most in need.

🇸🇴 UN Intervention in Somalia

Somalia is a prescribed country for which the markschemes provide detailed evidence of UN involvement.

Background:

• President Siad Barre fell in January \(1991\).
• The Somali state collapsed and power became divided among local clans.
• Civil war and widespread violence followed.
• Half of the population faced severe malnutrition and related diseases.
• Approximately \(300{,}000\) people died and others became refugees in neighbouring countries.

UNOSOM I:

• Assisted with the distribution of humanitarian aid.
• Supported state reconstruction during \(1992\)–\(1993\).
• Helped produce an agreement for disarmament and reconciliation.

UNOSOM II:

• The operation was led by the United States and faced attacks from local forces.
• The United States deployed Task Force Ranger in an attempt to control hostilities.
• Fighting resulted in the deaths of civilians and peacekeepers.
• The operation failed to restore lasting peace.
• The markscheme identifies incapacity, poor equipment and corruption among the reasons for failure.

Other markschemes similarly conclude that UN operations in Somalia were disrupted by militia activity. The unsuccessful American attempt to capture Mohamed Aidid was followed by UN withdrawal.

UN intervention in Somalia therefore had limited humanitarian and reconstructive successes but failed to establish a lasting political settlement.

📊 Forms and Effects of External Involvement

⚖️ Historical Assessment

External involvement had contradictory effects. International aid, investment and specialized agencies could provide capital, infrastructure, education, healthcare and humanitarian relief. However, these benefits could be accompanied by economic dependence and foreign influence over domestic policy.

Cold War intervention frequently prioritized international rivalry over the long-term stability of African states. Military aid could strengthen governments but also enable repression, interstate aggression and proxy warfare.

The effectiveness of international organizations depended on their authority, resources, equipment and support from local groups and member states. Somalia demonstrates that humanitarian assistance and limited reconstruction could succeed even when the larger objective of restoring peace failed.

⚡ Quick Recap
✔ Cold War powers provided military, economic and political support to African governments and opposition groups.
✔ Military aid and proxy conflict could increase instability, while economic assistance could support development.
✔ Neocolonialism could reduce control over resources, tax revenue, trade and political decision-making.
✔ Foreign investment could also develop infrastructure, industries and training facilities.
✔ The OAU promoted decolonization and African cooperation but was restricted by internal divisions and non-intervention.
✔ Its failure to prevent conflicts in Somalia and between Ethiopia and Eritrea was a major limitation.
✔ UN agencies contributed to education, health, hunger relief, industrial development, labour rights and refugee assistance.
✔ UNOSOM I achieved limited humanitarian and reconstructive successes in Somalia.
✔ UNOSOM II failed to restore lasting peace because of armed resistance and operational weaknesses.
✔ External involvement must be evaluated through both its constructive and destabilizing effects.