Reproduction Flashcards iGCSE Biology
[qdeck ” ]
[h] Reproduction Flashcards iGCSE Biology
[q] Advantages of Breast-Feeding
[a]
- Provides balanced nutrients / food;
- Easy to digest;
- Provides passive immunity against pathogens;
- Sterile;
- Is at correct body temperature;
- Bonding with mother;
- No additives;
- No preparation;
- No cost;
- Provides, best / complete / most suitable / AW, food;
- Easy to digest / less risk of colic;
- No additives / less risk of allergies / child less likely to develop
- Diabetes;
- Contains antibodies / reference to colostrum / provides passive
- Immunity / provides protection against,
- Pathogens / diseases / microorganisms;
- Sterile / less risk of infection;
- Is at, body / correct, temperature;
- No preparation / always available;
- Bonding with mother;
- It’s free / ‘cheap’;
[q] Advantages of sexual reproduction (in plants)?
[a]
- Genetic variation / diversity;
- ref to, alleles / genes / DNA, from different, plants / parents;
- Allows mutations to be expressed / AW;
- Allows adaptation to, new conditions / changed environment / AW;
- (new species) can evolve / allows natural selection to occur;
- pollen exchanged between individuals / cross pollination;
- Seeds are dispersed;
- Can colonise new areas / AW;
- Less competition (with parent plant / among offspring);
- Seeds may be dormant;
- Survival through, harsh / adverse, conditions;
- Allows, variation / genetic diversity;
- Plant more likely to survive (named) environmental change;
- Resistance to disease;
- Ability to evolve;
- ref. to fitness;
[q] Antenatal Care
[a]
- Antenatal (before birth), care is the name given to the care and advice given to expectant mothers along with checks on fetal growth and development
- Whilst pregnant, expectant mothers are given advice on:
- Diet:
- Iron: For red blood cells / haemoglobin / to transport oxygen / prevent anemia
- Proteins: Growth and development of fetus
- Calcium: Growth of bones and teeth of fetus
- Folic Acid.
- Exercise:
- Stay fit
- Health precautions:
- Avoiding infections, tobacco, alcohol and other drugs
- Diet:
[q] Artificial insemination (AI)
[a]
- Doctor provides (named) fertility drug early in menstrual cycle; e.g. When follicle(s) are developing / 14 days before AI;
- Sperm is collected from male donor;
- Sperm is placed into uterus around the time of ovulation;
- Male
- Low sperm count
- Sperm too weak to reach uterus/oviduct.
- Female
- Abnormal uterus wall.
- Vagina too acidic
- Provide (named) fertility drug early in menstrual cycle; e.g. When follicle(s) are developing / 14 days before AI;
- Collect, sperm / semen (from male);
- Place, semen / sperm, into uterus / vagina / through cervix;
- Around the time of ovulation;
[q] What is Asexual reproduction?
[a] A process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent is called Asexual reproduction.
[q] Asexual reproduction Advantages
[a]
- Favourable / good characteristics of parent passed on;
- Easier to adapt to same environment as parent;
- Less energy / resources used;
- No gametes;
- Fast reproduction time;
- Dense colonies outcompete other species;
- Only one parent required;
[q] What is Cross-pollination?
[a] Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species is called Cross-pollination.
[q] Cross-pollination Advantage
[a]
- More variation.
- Cross-pollination results in more genetic diversity in a species, thus the species can adaptand is more resilient to diseases.
- Less competition for offspring.
[q] Cross-pollination Disadvantage
[a]
- Cross-pollination can only occur when the flowers are open.
- Less chance of pollination.
[q] Describe how the ancestors of the great white shark developed adaptive features such as good eyesight
[a]
- 1. Variation (in eyesight);
- 2. Ref. To mutation;
- 3. New alleles arise that increases fitness;
- 4. (organisms with better eyesight) are better competitors;
- 5. Organisms with the good eyesight / feature, are more likely to survive and reproduce; ora
- 6. Passing on their alleles (for good eyesight);
- 7. Eventually all the organisms (in the population) will have the
- 8. Feature / good eyesight;
- 9. Ref to natural selection / evolution;
[q] Describe the role of stem cells in the growth of an embryo?
[a]
- Ref. to unspecialised cells;
- That can become specialised;
- Ref. to expression of genes in specialised cells;
- AVP ; e.g. continually divide.
[q] What is a Development?
[a] Increase in complexity is called Development.
- Increase in complexity;
- (Named) cells / tissue(s) / organ(s) / organ system(s), become specialised / differentiate / AW;
[q] Disadvantages of Breast-Feeding
[a]
- Time consuming;
- Transfer of HIV or Alcohol;
- Painful;
- Stressful / may be embarrassing;
- Mother may not be able to produce enough milk;
- Cannot see how much baby has consumed;
- Task cannot be shared with other parent;
- Time consuming;
- Transfer of, viruses / HIV / Hepatitis B ;
- Painful / sore nipples / mastitis;
- Stressful / may be embarrassing / AW;
- Mother may not be able to produce enough milk;
- Cannot see how much baby has consumed;
- Task cannot be shared with other parent;
- Medications / drugs / alcohol, can pass to baby;
[q] Environmental problems caused by non-biodegradable plastics in streams and rivers.
[a]
- Plastic cannot decompose;
- Visual pollution;
- Destruction of habitat / ecosystem / food chain;
- Ingested plastic cannot be digested;
- Plastic Suffocate and choke organisms;
- Plastic blocks light for photosynthesis;
- Reduces concentration of (dissolved) oxygen ;
- May release toxins / harmful chemicals;
- Idea of bioaccumulation / biomagnification;
- Blocks the flow of water in streams or rivers;
- Plastic cannot decompose;
- Ingested plastic cannot be digested;
- Plastic trapped and strangle organisms AW;
- Plastic blocks light for, photosynthesis;
- May release toxins / harmful chemicals;
- Blocks the flow of water in streams or rivers;
- Reduces concentration of (dissolved) oxygen ;
- Destruction of habitat / ecosystem / food chain;
- Idea of bioaccumulation / biomagnification;
- Visual pollution
[q] Explain the importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction
[a]
- Chromosome number halved / becomes haploid;
- Genetic / DNA variation;
- New combinations of alleles;
- Fertilisation restores diploid number in zygote / ensures number of chromosomes remains constant in next generation;
[q] Features of Male Gametes
[a]
[q] Female reproductive structures and their function:
[a]
- Ovary:
- Contains follicles which develop into the ova.
- Produces progesterone and oestrogen
- Oviduct:
- Carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny cilia in the wall;
- Site of fertilisation.
- Uterus:
- Where the fetus develops
- Cervix:
- A ring of muscle, moist by mucus with a small opening, separating the vagina from the uterus
- Vagina:
- Moist tube of muscle, flexible and secretes mucus
- Receives penis and sperm during intercourse, and way out for baby at birth.
[q] Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics
[a]
- Oestrogen produced.
- Hips broaden.
- Start of ovulation and menstruation.
- Breast size grows.
- Growth of pubic hair.
- Size of uterus and vagina grow.
[q] What is Fertilisation?
[a] The fusion of gamete nuclei is called Fertilisation.
[q] Fertilisation Process
[a]
- Acrosome enzymes are released (from sperm);
- Acrosome enzymes break down / digest jelly coat of ova;
- Sperm head enters the ova;
- Haploid nuclei of sperm and ova fuse together to form a diploid zygote;
- Fertilisation membrane forms / jelly coat hardens, so that no more sperm can enter;
- Mitosis of zygote, forming a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst;
- Use of energy stores from egg cell (for mitosis)
- Blastocyst moves along the oviduct towards the uterus;
- Ciliary movement / peristalsis, in the oviduct;
- (acrosome) enzymes break down, jelly layer / AW;
- Sperm, head / nucleus, enters egg;
- Fertilisation membrane forms / no more sperm can enter;
- (haploid) nuclei, fuse / join;
- (diploid) zygote formed;
- Mitosis / cell division;
- (2 / more – celled) embryo forms;
- (hollow) ball of cells / embryo / zygote / fertilised egg, moves down the oviduct;
- Ciliary movement / peristalsis, in the oviduct;
[q] Fertility Drugs
[a]
- Drugs like Clomiphene are taken early in menstrual cycle;
Effects:
- Inhibits action of oestrogen;
- Stimulates release of FSH and LH;
- Makes sure that FSH concentration is high enough;
- To stimulate development of follicles
- More eggs are released;
- LH stimulates ovulation;
- (Named) drug (e.g. FSH / clomiphene / clomid), injected / taken, early in menstrual cycle;
- Inhibits action of oestrogen;
- Stimulates, production / release, of FSH;
- Makes sure that FSH concentration is high enough;
- To stimulate production / development / maturation of, follicles / eggs / ova / oocytes;
- More eggs are released;
- LH stimulates, ovulation / release of eggs;
[q] How do bacteria reproduce asexually?
[a]
- DNA replicates;
- Cell membrane / cell wall develops in the middle of the cell;
- Binary fission;
- Bacteria divides into two;
- DNA / chromosome / genetic material, replicates / is copied;
- cell membrane / cell wall, develops in the middle of the cell;
- binary fission;
- bacteria / cell / cytoplasm, divides into two;
[q] In-Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)
[a]
- Woman given hormone treatment to stimulate egg production.
- Multiple eggs taken from ovary.
- In the lab, eggs are mixed with sperm in a culture petri dish to be fertilised.
- Fertilised eggs placed in an incubator for 48 hours.
- Embryos are implanted in the uterus or frozen for future implanting.
- Surgery cannot be used to repair
[q] Labour and Birth
[a]
- Contractions of the muscles in the uterus wall.
- Labour starts
- Regular rhytemic contractions become stronger and more frequent
- Stimulation by [hormone] increases
- Helped by [hormone] (more sensitive to [hormone])
- Prevented by [hormone] (that decreases fully before birth)
- Breaking of Amnion.
- Release amniotic fluid.
- Dilation of Cervix.
- Gradually widens enough to let baby’s head pass through.
- Passage through Vagina.
- Muscular contractions of uterus wall and abdomen push baby head-first through the cervix and vagina.
- Tying and cutting of the umbilical cord.
- Baby can breathe on its own.
- Delivery of the afterbirth.
- Placenta breaks away from uterus and pushed out seperately.
[q] Male reproductive structures and their function
[a]
- Testes:
- Have many coiled tubes which produce sperm, and the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
- Scrotum:
- A sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than body temperature
- Sperm duct:
- Muscular tube that links the testis to the urethra in order to allow the passage of semen containing sperm
- Prostate gland:
- Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen
- Urethra:
- Passes semen containing sperm through the penis;
- Aso carries urine from the bladder
- Penis:
- Male sex organ
- To insert into the vagina of the female during sexual intercourse in order to transfer sperm
[q] Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics
[a]
- Testerone Produced
- Voice deepen
- Production of sperm
- Maturation of penis and testes
- Growth of pubic and facial hair
[q] Menstrual Cycle
[a]
- Day 1-5
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) produced by pituary gland
- Stimulates maturation of one follicle
- Follicle secretes oestrogen
- Stimulates maturation of one follicle
- Endometrium breaks down (Menstruation)
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) produced by pituary gland
- Day 5-12
- Oestrogen/Estradiol released by ovary
- Causes repair and growth of endometrium (Thickening)
- At high concetration, inhibits FSH
- Stops maturation of follicle
- Stimulates pituary gland to secrete Luteinising Hormone/Lutropin (LH)
- Oestrogen/Estradiol released by ovary
- Day 13-15
- LH (secreted by pituary gland)
- Causes Ovulation [Day 14] (release of ova from ovary)
- Body tempertaure increases.
- Formation of Corpus Luteum from ovulating follicle
- Causes Ovulation [Day 14] (release of ova from ovary)
- LH (secreted by pituary gland)
- Day 15-28
- Corpus Luteum
- Secretes progesterone
- Progesterone
- Stimulate endometrium to thicken and produce more blood vessels
- Prepare endometrium for implantation
- Inhibit LH (at high concentrations)
- Inhibit FSH (at high concentrations)
- Corpus Luteum
[q] Methods of Birth Control in Humans
[a]
- Barrier
- Condom
- Thin rubber sheath covering over penis
- Traps sperm, preventing them from reaching uterus
- Protects against impregnation/STIs
- Femidom
- Rubber sheath with rings, one inserted into vagina and one outside
- Sperm trapped, reduces STI chance
- Diaphragm
- Thin rubber disc placed in vagina, covering cervix.
- Sperm trapped, but chance of STI
- Condom
[q] Methods of Birth Control in Humans
[a]
- Chemical
- Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)
- T-shaped plastic and copper device
- Inserted into wall of uterus, preventing implantation
- Intra-Uterine System (IUS)
- T-shaped
- Releases (synthethic) progesterone slowly over a long period of time in uterus to inhibit FSH.
- Contraceptive Pill
- Pill contain oestrogen and progesterone to prevent ovulation
- Contraceptive Implant
- Small plastic tube inserted under the skin of upper arm of a woman
- Slowly release progesterone preventing pregnancy
- Contraceptive Injection
- Progesterone injected, thickening mucus in cervix and thins the endometrium
- Sperm prevented in cervix/no implantation.
- Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)
[q] Methods of Birth Control in Humans
[a]
- Natural
- Abstinence
- Avoid sex completely.
- Avoiding fertile period
- Body Temperature
- During/after ovulation, temperature rise by about 0.5℃ .
- Infertile 3 days before and 1 day after ovulation.
- Cervical mucus
- Mucus becomes more fluid as ovulation approaches.
- Body Temperature
- Abstinence
[q] Name the Blue Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Green Star
[a]
[q] Name the Green Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Green Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Purple Star
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Star
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Stars
[a]
[q] Name the Yellow Stars
[a]
[q] Outline how sewage should be treated before entering a stream
[a]
- Solids are filtered;
- Flocculation to separate suspended particles from water / sedimentation to settle particles in settling tank;
- Digestion by microorganisms in aeration tank;;
- Any example ; e.g. Proteins → amino acids, starch → glucose, fat to fatty acids (and glycerol)
- Water is disinfected / chlorinated / treated with ozone / treated with UV;
- Distillation / collection of water from evaporator;
- Remove solids / pass through a grid / filter / screening;
- Allow to sediment / (primary) sedimentation / settling tank;
- Use, microorganisms / bacteria / fungi ;
- In aerobic conditions / oxygen supplied / aerobic digestion / aeration tank;
- Microbes, digest / decompose, complex compounds to, simple / soluble, compounds;
- Any example ; e.g. Proteins → amino acids, starch → glucose, fat to fatty acids (and glycerol)
- Water is, disinfected / chlorinated / treated with ozone / treated with UV;
- AVP ; e.g. Ref to respiration / recycling bacteria into aeration tank / flocculation described or explained
- Filtration / screening to remove large pieces of waste;
- Flocculation / coagulation to separate suspended particles from water / sedimentation to settle particles;
- Digestion by, bacteria / fungi / decomposers / microorganisms;
- With aeration (tank) / trickle filter / activated sludge;
- Sludge treated with anaerobic decomposers / anaerobic digestion;
- (water) treated with, chlorine / ozone / UV (light);
- Distillation / collection of water from evaporator;
[q] Plant Fertilisation
[a]
- Pollen transferred to stigma
- The place where pollen grain absorbs liquid from the stigma develops to form a pollen tube.
- This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the same species of stigma
- The pollen tube grows down the style.
- Function of pollen tube: delivers male gamete downwards to ovule.
- The pollen tube enters ovule, in the ovary
- The tip of the pollen tube opens.
- Fertilisation occurs, male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus to form a diploid zygote
- Each ovule in an ovary needs to be fertilised by a separate pollen grain.
- The zygote will start to divide by mitosis and forms an embryo, becoming the seed.
[q] What is Pollination?
[a] The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called Pollination.
[q] Pregnancy and development
[a]
- Zygote divides continuously to form a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst;
- Blastocyst moves down the oviduct towards uterus;
- By ciliary action / peristalsis / muscle contraction;
- Blastocyst implants / sinks into endometrium;
- Growth and development of placenta occurs;
- After 8 weeks, when all the organs are formed, the embryo is called a fetus.
- One of the first organs to form is the heart, which pumps blood around the body of the embryo.
- Follicle become corpus luteum;
- Corpus luteum secretes / releases progesterone ;
- Progesterone maintains endometrium thickness
- Progesterone prevents menstruation;
- Inhibition of FSH (secretion / release);
- Prevents, production of more eggs / production of follicles;
- Forms a blastocyst / blastula
- (hollow) ball / collection / group / AW, of cells;
- Goes / moves, down oviduct / down fallopian tube / towards uterus;
- Detail, e.g. Ciliary action / peristalsis / muscle contraction;
- Implants / AW, into, lining of the uterus / endometrium / wall of uterus;
- Growth / development, of placenta;
- Follicle becomes, yellow body / corpus luteum / remains of follicle / AW;
- Yellow body / corpus luteum / ovary / AW, secretes / releases / produces progesterone;
- Progesterone maintains, endometrium / lining of uterus / wall of uterus / AW;
- Progesterone, prevents menstruation;
- Inhibition of FSH (secretion / release);
- Prevents, production of more eggs / production of follicles;
[q] Pregnancy structures
[a]
Placenta
- Villi begins to grow from embryo into endometrium soon after implantation
- Function of Placenta:
- Gas Exchange
- Transfer of dissolved nutrients, (e.g. glucose / amino acids / ions / water), from maternal (circulation) to fetal by diffusion;
- Transfer of excretory products, (e.g. urea) from fetal circulation /to maternal by diffusion;
- Produce hormones
- Progesterone (maintain thickness of endometrium)
- Oestrogen (prepare the mammary glands in the breasts for milk production)
- Passive immunity by antibodies from maternal to fetal.
- Prevent mixing of mothers blood and fetus blood
- Mother’s blood pressure can damage fetus organs.
- Different blood group between mother and fetus
- Gas Exchange
Umbilical Cord
- Physically attached to placenta and fetus
- Function of Umbilical Cord:
- Transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste from fetus to placenta.
- Transport oxygenated blood and food substances from mother to fetus.
Amniotic Fluid/Amnion
- Membrane that encloses the amniotic fluid
- Function of Amnion :
- Keep amniotic fluid from rupturing before birth.
Amniotic Fluid
- Function of Amniotic Fluid
- Protects fetus against mechanical shock.
- Allow fetus to move to promote muscular development.
- Prevent dehydration.
- Act as lubricant before birth.
- Maintain constant temperature
- gas exchange / named example with direction;
- transfer of (dissolved) nutrients, from maternal (circulation) / to fetal;
- transfer of excretory products, from fetal / to maternal;
- by diffusion;
- produces / secretes, (named) hormone;
- passive immunity / antibodies, from maternal / to fetal;
- prevents / limits, mixing of blood;
- ref to regulating blood pressure;
- AVP;
- e.g. maternal / fetal attachment point
- e.g. ref to counter current flow / maintains concentration gradient
- e.g. hormone function described
- protection from (mechanical) shock (of fetus);
maintains (constant) temperature (of fetus);
allows movement (of fetus);
prevents dehydration;
[q] What is Self-pollination?
[a] The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or different flower on the same plant is called Self-pollination.
[q] What is Sexual reproduction?
[a] A process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other is called Sexual reproduction.
[q] Sexual Reproduction Disadvantage
[a]
- Two parents required
- Slower reproduction process
- Requires more energy
- Because many eggs is wasteful
- Offspring not be as well adapted to environment;
[q] What is Sexually transmitted infection [STI]?
[a] An infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact is called Sexually transmitted infection [STI].
[q] Examples of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
[a] AIDS and HIV
- AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
- HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
- HIV causes AIDS.
- HIV attacks lymphocytes, causing number of antibodies to decrease.
- Body is vulnerable to minor diseases due to weak immune system.
[q] Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
[a] TRANSMITTED BY
- From mother to fetus / across the placenta;
- From mother to baby at birth;
- In breast milk;
- Unprotected / unsafe sex;
- Sharing needles / syringes;
- In blood products / blood for transfusion / transplants / blood to blood contact;
[q] Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
[a] Controlling Spread of STI
- Use condom/femidom.
- Successful treatment of HIV/AIDS by drugs
- Education about HIV and AIDS
[q] Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments
[a] Contraception
- Some religions prohibit it
[q] Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments
[a]
- Artificial Insemination
- Surrogate Motherhood/Anonymous donor
- Children has identity crisis
- Religious/Moral Objections
- Surrogate Motherhood/Anonymous donor
[q] Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments
[a]
- In-Vitro Fertilisation
- Allows infertile couples/single parents/same sex couples to have children
- Religious/Ethical concerns about IVF;
- Expense of fertility treatment;
- May lead to multiple births;
- Idea of genetic screening before implanting is possible;
- Storage of, eggs/embryos, is possible (during chemotherapy);
- Has allowed stem cell research on embryos;
[q] Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments
[a]
- Fertility Drugs
- Idea that stress is associated with difficulty having children;
- Stated problem with multiple births (e.g: Expensive to take care of multiple children)
- Issues with elderly parent(s);
- Religious objections to use of fertility drugs;
- Treatment may be expensive;
- Increases populations / any negative effect of population increase;
- Can be used to increase populations / any positive effect of population increase; e.g. In countries with falling birth rates
[q] State the advantages of self-pollination
[a]
- Less wastage of pollen and energy by producing more pollens;
- Greater chance of pollination;
- No need for pollinating agents;
- Does not require other plants of the same species to be nearby;
- Offspring well adapted to environment of the parents;
[q] State the disadvantages of self-pollination
[a]
- Less variation
- Genotype become homozygous (over time).
- Limited gene pool
- Less chance of adapting to change in the environment;
- More susceptible to disease;
- May become extinct as a result
[q] State the features of Wind-pollinated plants
[a]
[q] Using hormones for contraception
[a]
- Oestrogen
- Encourages repair of endometrium after menstruation
- Prevents release of FSH.
- Progesterone
- Maintains endometrium thickness
- Inhibits secretion of LH.
[q] What are the advantages of seed dispersal?
[a]
- Colonise new areas ;
- Reduce (intraspecific) competition ;
- Reduce inbreeding ; ora
[q] What are the advantages of Sexual Reproduction on Animals?
[a]
- Maintain / increase population;
- Allows variation;
- (variation) caused by meiosis;
- For example, through crossing over / independent assortment;
- Random fusion of gametes;
- Ability to express recessive traits / AW;
- Adaptation to new / changed environments;
- (allows) natural selection / evolution / formation of new species;
[q] What are the advantages of variation between individuals?
[a]
- Allows adaptation to new environment;
- E.g. ref to new disease / camouflage / escaping from (new) predators
- Allows selection / evolution ;
- Ref to reduces competition ;
- Increases chances of survival of the species / reduces chance of extinction ;
- AVP ; e.g. increase in gene pool
[q] What are the differences between sperm cell and egg cell?
[a]
- Flagellum / tail / streamlined;
- Motile / swim / AW;
- Smaller / reference to actual sizes;
- Acrosome / enzymes in packet on head;
- No food store;
- Less cytoplasm;
- Contains x or y (chromosome);
[q] What are the role of enzymes in seed germination?
[a] Stored food reserves are broken down. For example, starch is broken down by amylase into maltose which is used for energy.
- Stored food / food reserves (in seed) broken down;
- named enzyme plus substrate;
- product plus use;
- enzymes required in process of respiration;
[q] What happens during ovulation?
[a]
- release of an, egg / ovum / oocyte;
- from, follicle / ovary;
- into, oviduct / fallopian tube;
[q] Why shouldn’t pregnant women smoke?
[a]
- Toxins / AW, in smoke can cross the placenta;
- increased risk, of miscarriage / still birth / premature birth / low birth weight / deformities;
- reduces oxygen available to the foetus / foetal brain damage;
- increased risk, of reduced lung, function / infection, in foetus / infants;
- babies more likely to become addicted / have withdrawal symptoms;
- AVP;
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