Question
With reference to the period up to 1924, examine the impact of the South African War of 1899 to 1902.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are expected to consider the impact of the 1899 to 1902 South African War. Candidates may elect to take a holistic approach or to break down the impact into long- and short-term outcomes. Either method is equally acceptable.
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Short-term:
- The Treaty of Vereeniging led to the annexation of the two Boer republics by the British Empire.
- The loss of life and economic destruction led to bitterness towards English-speakers among many in the Boer community.
- Milner’s Anglicization policies were a failure.
Long-term:
- The desire for reconciliation between the two white communities accelerated after Milner’s recall to London and led to self-government for the Transvaal and Orange Free State within the British Empire.
- The establishment of a National Convention and a series of negotiations led to the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910.
- The system of segregation implemented by the Botha-Smuts governments resulted in the political and economic subjugation of South Africa’s majority black population.
- Continued divisions within the Afrikaner community over the issue of the government’s continuing co-operation with English-speakers led to the creation of the National Party and the Afrikaner rebellion of 1914.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the impact of the Sharpeville and Soweto massacres on the struggle against apartheid in South Africa.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are expected to consider the results of the Sharpeville and Soweto massacres and the impact of these on the South African anti-apartheid struggle.
Indicative content
Sharpeville:
- The South African government declared a State of Emergency and subsequently banned the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).
- The ANC launched an armed struggle by forming Umkhonto we Sizwe (the PAC had already created its own armed wing, Poqo).
- The fierce government crackdown in the wake of the armed struggle led to the arrest, trial and life imprisonment of ANC leaders. The ANC was driven into exile and internal opposition to apartheid abated for more than a decade.
Soweto:
- There was continuous unrest in the townships that the authorities were incapable of bringing under control and which led to a sense of a system in crisis.
- The anti-apartheid struggle escalated with the creation of new political organizations such as the United Democratic Front.
- There was profound crisis for the South African economy, as international trade sanctions intensified and the value of the rand collapsed.
- The government initiated a slow process of making limited reforms to the apartheid system.
- The process accelerated in the late 1980s and this led to the collapse of apartheid.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The segregation and discrimination policies of Smuts and Hertzog achieved their aims.” Discuss.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates should have a clear understanding of the policies of Smuts and Hertzog so that they can offer a review of the extent to which the aims of segregationist laws were met. They may look at their overall impact of discriminatory policy as well as examining specific areas of segregation that legislation was designed to achieve. Candidates may draw a distinction between the two leaders: broadly speaking, the policies of Hertzog were more discriminatory than those of Smuts, even though the two shared power for some of the segregationist period.
Indicative content
• Candidates may examine political segregation, which was brought about through the systematic exclusion from the political process of South Africa’s non-White citizens. The small minority of black voters who were entitled to vote in the Cape were finally removed from the ballot in 1936. However a small number of Coloured voters remained enfranchised in that province.
• The government aimed to bring about segregation in employment through the entrenchment of the so-called “colour bar”. The Mines and Works Act of 1911 meant that skilled and semi-skilled positions in mining and industry were reserved exclusively for white workers. While the post-war Smuts government attempted to relax this legislation, leading to the Rand Rebellion of 1922, Hertzog’s “civilized labour” policy imposed a strict colour bar across the economy.
• Urban residential segregation was enforced through the establishment of separate urban areas for “natives” under the Native (Urban Areas) Act of 1923. This act also restricted the access of blacks to other urban areas through the extension of the passbook system. However, the existence of so-called “black spots” in many cities meant that complete residential separation was not achieved. However, it could be argued that this was never an explicit ambition of the government, especially after the appointment of the Fagan Commission in 1946.
• Rural residential segregation was enforced under the Land Act of 1913, which designated 7 per cent of the total area of the country (extended to 13 per cent in 1936) for the exclusive use of Africans. These were the only areas where black people could enjoy the right to own land and reside permanently.
• Sexual segregation was promoted with the Immorality Act of 1927, which forbade all extramarital sexual relations between races. However, this did not prevent miscegenation as couples from different races could continue to marry.
• Legislation also provided for the segregation of amenities, provided that these were of an equal standard for all racial groups.
• Candidates may refer to how discrimination led to the deprivation and impoverishment of millions of non-white South Africans who were denied well-paying jobs. Many were also confined to squalid informal settlements on the edges of the major cities, or to the overcrowded native reserves. It could be argued that this conflicted with one of the key aims of government, which is to provide for the welfare of all of its citizens.
• Candidates may also refer to some of the wider consequences of discrimination, such as the emergence of black political parties, with the South African Native National Congress (SANNC), which later became the African National Congress (ANC), and the Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union (ICU) providing a focus for internal opposition to the government.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did growing international opposition contribute to the collapse of the apartheid system?
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates will focus their responses on the period from the first signs of global opposition to apartheid in the 1950s through to the final demise of the system in 1994. However, the main emphasis in responses will probably be on the later part of this period. One possible approach would be to critically examine a range of factors, including factors other than international opposition, before drawing a conclusion about the level of significance that could be attributed to them.
Indicative content
International opposition
• Candidates should refer to South Africa’s growing international diplomatic isolation during the course of the apartheid period. This began to accelerate in the 1960s following the independence of many African states as the UN repeatedly condemned the apartheid system.
• Economic factors could be stressed, including the trade boycotts and sanctions imposed by many countries and withdrawal of investment. These had a negative impact on white business interests. Eventually this led to the collapse of the South African economy in the 1970s and 1980s, which in turn put pressure on the government to reform apartheid.
• The various campaigns and marches organized by anti-apartheid activists in various countries around the world, often against South African participation in international sporting competitions may be referenced. This kept the apartheid system firmly in the international spotlight. There is evidence that by the 1980s many in the white community were frustrated that their country was being treated as an international pariah.
• The important role of some (mainly communist) countries in offering a haven for the African National Congress (ANC) in exile may be addressed. This frustrated the repeated attempts of the South African government to destroy the liberation movement.
• The imminent end of the Cold War by the late 1980s meant that South Africa could no longer rely upon the continued support of the US, and this was a factor in the final decision to dismantle the apartheid system.
Other factors
• For much of the period, countries like the US and Britain continued to provide diplomatic support to South Africa and ignore the economic embargo, a factor that lessened the impact of international opposition.
• Other internal political factors were perhaps more significant. These included the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the explosion of violence in the townships in the 1980s, and the emergence of the opposition United Democratic Front (UDF). The instability generated a sense of crisis and the impression that the country was heading for catastrophe.
• It has been argued that in the late 1980s de Klerk and others in the National Party (NP) realized that the best means of securing Afrikaner interests in the long term was to begin to dismantle the apartheid system.
• Another reason was the unexpectedly rapid pace of the political changes that followed the release of Mandela from prison in 1990. This was largely due to Mandela’s conciliatory approach to the white community and the determination of both he and de Klerk to convene the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) to bring about a smooth transition to non-racial democracy.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.