Question
Examine the reasons for the growth of nationalism in Indonesia (Dutch East Indies).
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider why nationalism grew in Indonesia during this period. Many candidates will attempt to order or rank the reasons; however no set approach is prescribed. Nevertheless, candidates should attempt to make a substantiated judgment.
Indicative content
- Initially the Indonesian archipelago was under the rule of the United East India Company (VOC). In 1800 this was dissolved and its possessions in the archipelago were nationalized and became the Dutch East Indies. The term Indonesia began to be used from the late 19th century as the Dutch tried to create hegemony. This enabled locals to develop the concept of Indonesia as a nation state and from this the ideas of nationalism and independence would grow.
- Throughout the 19th century the Dutch expanded their territory in the region and it became one of the wealthiest European colonial possessions. Economic exploitation of Indonesia’s spice trade increased support for the growing nationalist movements.
- To expand their territory the Dutch fought many wars against local leaders. The most prolonged was in Aceh where there was fierce guerrilla resistance against the Dutch from their invasion in 1873 until 1912, when the Acehnese surrendered. Resistance in the areas of Bali, Java, Sumatra and Batak was all quashed by Dutch forces who believed that the Indonesians would benefit from Dutch rule rather than indigenous leaders who were perceived to be backward and oppressive.
- The Dutch Ethical Policy initiated from 1901 led to more Indonesians experiencing western-style education. This gave Indonesians the skills required to organize resistance to Dutch rule.
- From the beginnings of the 20th century nationalist movements emerged. University students formed the movement Perhimpunan Indonesia. This movement was radicalized by the First World War and, by 1920, their newspaper had changed its name to Indonesia Merdeka (Free Indonesia). Before the war they had opposed colonization but had cooperated with the Dutch; however, from the 1920s they adopted a policy of non-cooperation. There were other nationalist groups including the Budi Utomo and the Indonesische Studieclub but initial attempts to unite all these groups failed.
- In Indonesia the vast majority of the population was Muslim and, in 1911, Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union) was founded. Dutch creation of the Volksraad did not satisfy Indonesian nationalism, which was influenced by the effects of the First World War and the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1918 Sarekat Islam adopted a socialist programme. In 1920 Semaun and Darsono formed the Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia, PKH (Communist Union of the Indies), which was changed in 1924 to the Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI (Communist Party of Indonesia). Communist members were expelled from Sarekat Islam. The latter campaigned against the suppression of Indonesians, and Islamic ideology became the foundation of its political struggle.
- In 1927 the Partai Nasional Indonesia was formed and Sukarno became its first leader. The party opposed both imperialism and capitalism and also sought to unify all Indonesian people. This was the beginning of a mass movement promoting nationalism and independence for Indonesia.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The First World War was the turning point in the development of a national identity.” Discuss with reference to either Australia or New Zealand.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the impact of the First World War on the development of a national identity in either country. Other factors may be considered; however no set response is prescribed.
Indicative content
The development of national identity up until the First World War:
- There had already been an emerging sense of national identity in both Australia and New Zealand prior to the war.
- In Australia the key factors included the movement towards and the achievement of Federation in 1901, the celebration of Australia’s uniqueness with reference to the flora and fauna, the adoption of the bushman image (despite the fact that most people lived in towns and cities), the art and writing of this period, the different strands of nationalism, radical republicanism and dual loyalty to both Australia and the British Empire.
- In New Zealand similar sentiments prevailed. For example, involvement in the Boer War, the granting of Dominion status in 1907, the rugged and enterprising man alone and against nature, egalitarianism, double patriotism and also cultural nationalism.
The role of the First World War:
- The impact of Australia’s or New Zealand’s involvement in the First World War is significant in that it both consolidated the emerging sense of national identity in each country and changed the nature of it.
- For both countries the key points include the initial enthusiasm for the war, the idea that Gallipoli was a defining moment in nationhood (for Australia, “baptism by fire” and New Zealand, “baptism of blood”), the soldiers come to represent the typical Australian or New Zealander in uniform with his values of resourcefulness and mateship, war correspondents and cartoonists popularized this image.
- Despite the fact that the Gallipoli campaign ended in withdrawal, the Anzac legend came to symbolize Australia’s or New Zealand’s involvement in the First World War and subsequent wars, and Anzac Day became a public holiday and de facto national day.
- After the First World War, in both countries, the sense of national identity was linked with commemoration and remembrance and it became part of a conservative imperialist nationalism in the 1920s. An example of this is the establishment of returned servicemen’s associations, which become the keepers of the legend.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The Government of India Act 1858 was a major influence on the emergence of a nationalist movement in India”. To what extent do you agree with this statement?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates will offer an opinion on the extent to which the Government of India Act 1858 fostered the emergence of a nationalist movement. It is likely that candidates may challenge this assumption and explain that other factors were vital to its emergence.
Indicative content
- The Government of India Act 1858 abolished the British East India Company and transferred its functions to the British Crown; however, in reality the nature of governance in India changed little.
- Indians were involved in the government to an extent but the Viceroy held extensive powers and those Indians that were involved did not represent the majority of the Indian people. The British were prepared to appease educated Indians by allowing them to represent themselves in the legislative councils rather than becoming elected representatives.
- This lack of a political voice was the driving force in the emergence of the Indian National Congress (INC) 1885. A founding aim of the INC was to achieve more influence for educated Indians in government.
- Candidates may challenge the assumption in the question and suggest that other developments in this time period had a greater influence on the emergence of a nationalist movement. These could include the partition of Bengal 1905, the Morley-Minto reforms 1909, the establishment of the All India Muslim League in 1906 and the creation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.
- There may also be some examination of economic exploitation by the British and how it contributed to the emergence of Indian nationalism.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The Siamese monarchs’ effective use of diplomacy ensured their country’s independence was maintained.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates will offer a considered and balanced review of the argument that Siam owed its independence to the diplomatic methods used by its monarchs in their dealings with Britain and France. They may agree or disagree with the statement; however, opinions and conclusions will be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence.
Indicative content
The monarchs’ use of diplomacy
- The monarchs during this period were Mongkut (1851–1868), Chulalongkorn (1868–1910) and Vajiravudh (1910–1925). Both Mongkut and Chulalongkorn conceded less vital land to France and Britain to ensure the survival of Siamese independence. They played off British interests in the west and south against those of the French in the east. These diplomatic agreements established Siam as a neutral buffer kingdom between the British territories of Burma and Malaya and French Indochina.
- In 1855, a treaty between Siam and Britain set out terms that favoured British trade and representation. This was a similar treaty to those imposed by European powers on other Asian countries.
- In 1893, Siam signed a similar treaty with France and, in 1907, ceded the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap to the French. In 1909, Siam ceded the provinces of Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Trengganu to Britain.
- In 1917, during the reign of Vajiravudh, the willingness of the Siamese to participate in the First World War strengthened the bonds of friendship with the French and the British.
Other factors
- Both Mongkut and Chulalongkorn modernized the state by employing Western advisers to assist in the reorganization of the country’s administration, commerce, infrastructure and education.
- Some candidates may criticize Siam’s cessation of land in order to maintain its independence.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.