Question
Examine the reasons why the “Double Ten” Nationalist Revolution occurred in China in 1911.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are expected to consider the reasons behind the “Double Ten” movement. Many candidates will attempt to order or rank the reasons; however no set approach is prescribed. Nevertheless, candidates should attempt to make a substantiated judgment.
Indicative content
- Long term reasons may include the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement by 1894, defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), failure of the 100 Days Reform Movement in 1898, the return of Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) and the conservatives to power and hence a rigidity in approach to government, the scramble for concessions by the European powers, and the growth of anti-foreign sentiments culminating in the Boxer Rebellion (1900–1901).
- The humiliation of the Boxer Protocol may be addressed. China had to pay huge indemnities and lost territory, there was a two year ban on the importation and manufacture of armaments, China’s sovereignty was violated (forts could not be rebuilt and foreign troops were stationed indefinitely in Beijing (Peking) and other places), officials were to be punished, memorials had to be erected and the examination system was abolished.
- In 1901, facing defeat by the Western powers, Cixi indicated that she would institute political reform so that she could retain power. However, this did not stem the tide. Anti-Qing sentiment re-emerged, there was a widening of the division between Manchu and Han, and there was resentment amongst the middle class and commercial interests due to the higher taxes imposed that were needed to fund the reforms. Furthermore, the railway recovery movement opposed the nationalization of the railways and there was frustration that constitutional reform was too slow.
- Reformist and revolutionary groups flourished in exile and increasing numbers saw the violent overthrow of the Qing dynasty as the only option. This increased support for the ideas of Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) and his 1905 Tongmenghui (T’ung-meng hui) or Revolutionary Alliance, which made eight unsuccessful attempts to overthrow the Qing government between 1906 and 1911.
- Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k’ai) was also significant as was the accidental nature of the start of the 1911 Revolution.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did Japan challenge the power of the Western nations in East Asia by the early 20th century?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that Japan may have been in a position to alter the balance of power in East Asia by the early 20th century. The end point is flexible so candidates may stop either before or after the First World War, but material beyond 1922 is really out of the timeframe.
Indicative content
- In 1894, at the start of the Sino-Japanese War, the major Western powers in East Asia were Britain, France, the US and Russia. They expected China to win the war and the balance of power to remain the same. However, Japanese industrial and military modernization after 1868 had been extensive and more thorough than China’s and so Japan was victorious.
- The Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) made China concede territory to Japan, pay an indemnity, open new ports to Japanese trade and recognize the independence of Korea. The 1895 Triple Intervention of Russia, France and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong (Liaotung) Peninsula to China, indicating these countries’ view that their interests in the region were under threat.
- Britain saw Japan as a useful potential ally against Russia and the Anglo–Japanese Alliance (1902) suited both Japan and Britain. However, Japan was not regarded as an equal.
- The defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) shocked the Western powers. The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) recognized Japanese interests in Korea and China.
- Although Britain, France and the US were greater powers on the world stage, none had military or naval bases of any importance in northeast Asia and Japan continued to develop its military and imperial ambitions in the region (for example, its annexation of Korea in 1910). Thus, there was some shift of power towards Japan in East Asia.
- Japan entered the First World War as an ally of Britain in August 1914. It was a chance for revenge against Germany for her role in the 1895 Triple Intervention and to take the German naval base at Jiaozhou (Kiaochow). Japan also saw opportunities in China and issued the 21 Demands in 1915.
- The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was a disappointment for Japan because of the failure of the racial equality clause, but Japan did gain Shandong (Shantung) and Germany’s north Pacific possessions.
- The Western powers felt that Japan threatened their interests in the region and the Washington Conference in 1922 attempted to address this issue.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent was conservative opposition responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894)?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the ways and extent to which, conservative opposition was responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement. Candidates may explain how other factors, such as regionalism, were responsible. Some candidates could challenge the assumption in the question, suggest that the movement was not a failure, and give examples of some successes.
Indicative content
Conservative opposition
- Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) led the conservative faction. By 1884, she had removed Prince Gong (Kung), who had been a supporter of reform, from power.
- Conservative opposition would not support any reform that changed the social, political or economic structure of China.
- The conservative factions generally supported military developments, which were seen as necessary to defend China against the West. To an extent, they also supported economic developments. However, although they were happy to benefit financially from new emerging businesses they did not want economic reform.
- The Manchu court did not want foreigners involved in the Self-Strengthening process, which led to many initiatives being abandoned. These included Robert Hart’s attempts to give China a modern navy.
Other factors
- The Self-Strengthening process was highly regionalized. Regional leaders like Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) and Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang) made significant military developments, such as the creation of arsenals and dockyards. However, these leaders acted independently and there was little coordination with other regions and central government.
- General problems such as bureaucratic inefficiency, nepotism, corruption and lack of understanding of modern concepts and practices among Confucian officials were also responsible for the movement’s failure. China also lacked a sense of national unity and the ideas of Confucianism often clashed with the concept of modernization.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did the social and cultural developments of the Meiji period transform Japan?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the extent to which Japan was transformed as a result of social and cultural developments in the Meiji period. For balance, it is likely that some areas of continuity will also be discussed. For example, some candidates may demonstrate an awareness of dynamic developments in the Tokugawa period in education, the family or urbanization.
Indicative content
- Japan introduced a new Western-based education system for all young people. Thousands of students were sent overseas to study and Westerners arrived in Japan to teach modern subjects such as science and technology. However, the Imperial Rescript on Education 1890, which demanded loyalty to the Emperor, demonstrated that the traditional values of Japanese society had not been abandoned.
- In 1873, the samurai were effectively abolished and replaced with a modern western-style army. The samurai lost their right to wear the topknot in 1871 and swords in 1876. The samurai became shizoku and, by 1876, they had lost all government stipends. Although they had lost their samurai status many ex-samurai went on to hold powerful government positions. In addition, the army was still held in high regard and, was only accountable to the Emperor, so the importance and prestige of the army had been retained.
- Christianity was allowed in Meiji Japan but Buddhism was attacked. However, Shintoism remained the national faith of most Japanese people.
- There was some discussion of women’s rights and feminism within the Popular Rights Movement. However, the Meiji Constitution still denied women the vote. The Meiji Code of 1898 gave the male head of the family absolute authority and wives could not take legal action against their husbands.
- Meiji Japan saw the adoption of Western dress, leisure activities and social habits. By 1872, Western attire was required for all court functions. There were dance halls and social functions that played Western music and had Western dances, Western customs, such as shaking hands, were adopted. However, by and large, only wealthy Japanese people living in the cities experienced these changes.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.