Question
Examine the factors that led to the partition of India in 1947.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the reasons why the partition of India took place in 1947. These factors could be ranked or grouped into themes as there is no prescribed response. Nevertheless, a reasoned conclusion is expected.
Indicative content
- British policies of “divide and rule” contributed to partition, for example, the 1909 Morley-Minto reforms; the 1919 Government of India Act and the creation of the diarchy; the 1935 Government of India Act 1935 and the retention of separate electorates.
- The relationship between Hindus and Muslims deteriorated after the leadership of the League was taken over by Sir Muhammad Iqbal (who put forward the demand for a separate Muslim state in India). The “Two-Nation Theory” (Hindus and Muslims) gained popularity among Muslims.
- Gandhi’s vision of an inclusive and united India may be mentioned. Even though there was division in the Indian National Congress (Congress) about Gandhi’s methods, it supported his non-cooperation campaigns such as the Salt March, 1930 and Quit India, 1942.
- The 1935 Government of India Act was a disappointment. The franchise remained limited, it abolished the diarchy, aimed for a federation of British India and the princely states, and promised eventual dominion status. Some in the Congress supported the proposed changes, but Nehru called it a “charter of slavery”.
- Jinnah and the All India Muslim League were pleased about the retention of separate electorates, but still feared Hindu domination. The League’s Lahore Resolution was adopted on 23 March 1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan’s first constitution.
- During the Cripps mission (1942), Jinnah demanded parity between the number of Congress and League ministers, the League’s exclusive right to appoint Muslims and a right for Muslim-majority provinces to secede, which led to the breakdown of talks. Jinnah supported the British effort in the Second World War, and opposed the Indian National Congress’s Quit India movement.
- Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement. This was the last attempt to reach a single-state solution. The 1946 election for the Constituent Assembly of India, the British Government’s proposals, and the actions of Wavell and Mountbatten may all be examined.
- External factors may include the timing of independence, which owed a great deal to the Second World War, and the ongoing pressures it placed on Britain. The Labour Party, which was voted to power in 1945, traditionally supported Indian claims for self-rule.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the political effects of the First World War or the Second World War on one country in South or Southeast Asia. Note: Cambodia, India, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies), Laos (French Indo-China), Pakistan, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and Vietnam are not appropriate examples.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must consider the political impact of either the First or Second World War on one country in South or Southeast Asia (with reference to the exclusions outlined in the History Guide). Relevant choices may include Bhutan, Burma, the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore and Thailand. Many countries were affected by the colonial powers’ involvement in the wars and many colonial subjects fought or were employed as non-combatants.
Indicative content
First World War:
- The war was a catalyst for the fledging nationalist movements in these countries: colonial subjects became disillusioned with European civilization; many nationalist leaders were increasingly politicized and this led to a desire for democracy, independence and, in some cases, socialism.
- The colonial powers responded in different ways, ranging from repression to making concessions. By the start of the Second World War the independence movements in the different countries were at various levels of development.
- Siam/Thailand remained independent under a monarchy and supported the Allies in the First World War. From 1932, Thailand was ruled by military dictatorships until the Japanese occupation.
Second World War:
- The Second World War and Japanese occupation may be seen as a watershed compared with the pre-war period of colonial rule during which the nationalist movements initially developed.
- Although the political effects in the different countries did not follow exactly the same path there are some common themes: Japanese atrocities; resistance to Japanese rule; the way the Japanese restructured the government (Burma, Thailand, Philippines); the way the Japanese used the colonial administration of country (Malaya, Singapore); the opportunities for nationalists to acquire experience in administration and in the military; the impact of Japanese ideas such as “Asia for the Asians”; Japanese support for independence from Western colonial rule.
- After the war various issues emerged: the return of the colonial power and the subsequent struggle until the final achievement of independence (Malaya, Singapore, Burma); the development of internal factional fighting and the need for the colonial power to unite the country again (Malaya); the return of the country to its own sovereign power (Thailand, the Philippines).
- The impact of the war on charismatic nationalist leaders may also be examined.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent was conservative opposition responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894)?
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the ways and extent to which, conservative opposition was responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement. Candidates may explain how other factors, such as regionalism, were responsible. Some candidates could challenge the assumption in the question, suggest that the movement was not a failure, and give examples of some successes.
Indicative content
Conservative opposition
- Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) led the conservative faction. By 1884, she had removed Prince Gong (Kung), who had been a supporter of reform, from power.
- Conservative opposition would not support any reform that changed the social, political or economic structure of China.
- The conservative factions generally supported military developments, which were seen as necessary to defend China against the West. To an extent, they also supported economic developments. However, although they were happy to benefit financially from new emerging businesses they did not want economic reform.
- The Manchu court did not want foreigners involved in the Self-Strengthening process, which led to many initiatives being abandoned. These included Robert Hart’s attempts to give China a modern navy.
Other factors
- The Self-Strengthening process was highly regionalized. Regional leaders like Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) and Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang) made significant military developments, such as the creation of arsenals and dockyards. However, these leaders acted independently and there was little coordination with other regions and central government.
- General problems such as bureaucratic inefficiency, nepotism, corruption and lack of understanding of modern concepts and practices among Confucian officials were also responsible for the movement’s failure. China also lacked a sense of national unity and the ideas of Confucianism often clashed with the concept of modernization.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did the social and cultural developments of the Meiji period transform Japan?
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the extent to which Japan was transformed as a result of social and cultural developments in the Meiji period. For balance, it is likely that some areas of continuity will also be discussed. For example, some candidates may demonstrate an awareness of dynamic developments in the Tokugawa period in education, the family or urbanization.
Indicative content
- Japan introduced a new Western-based education system for all young people. Thousands of students were sent overseas to study and Westerners arrived in Japan to teach modern subjects such as science and technology. However, the Imperial Rescript on Education 1890, which demanded loyalty to the Emperor, demonstrated that the traditional values of Japanese society had not been abandoned.
- In 1873, the samurai were effectively abolished and replaced with a modern western-style army. The samurai lost their right to wear the topknot in 1871 and swords in 1876. The samurai became shizoku and, by 1876, they had lost all government stipends. Although they had lost their samurai status many ex-samurai went on to hold powerful government positions. In addition, the army was still held in high regard and, was only accountable to the Emperor, so the importance and prestige of the army had been retained.
- Christianity was allowed in Meiji Japan but Buddhism was attacked. However, Shintoism remained the national faith of most Japanese people.
- There was some discussion of women’s rights and feminism within the Popular Rights Movement. However, the Meiji Constitution still denied women the vote. The Meiji Code of 1898 gave the male head of the family absolute authority and wives could not take legal action against their husbands.
- Meiji Japan saw the adoption of Western dress, leisure activities and social habits. By 1872, Western attire was required for all court functions. There were dance halls and social functions that played Western music and had Western dances, Western customs, such as shaking hands, were adopted. However, by and large, only wealthy Japanese people living in the cities experienced these changes.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the ways in which the non-cooperation campaign and the civil disobedience campaign contributed to the movement for Indian Independence.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must consider the different ways the non-cooperation and civil disobedience campaigns contributed to the Indian Independence movement. Candidates may give examples of the ways the campaigns helped and hindered the movement. They may point out that as a consequence of the campaigns, the Indian National Congress (INC) developed mass support and the British had to consider making concessions.
Indicative content
Non-cooperation campaign 1920–1922
- Gandhi had lost faith in cooperation with the British and called for mass nationwide protest.
- Gandhi asked Indians to withdraw from the police, military, civil service and the courts. British-manufactured goods were also to be boycotted.
- The campaign gained huge support amongst the younger generation of Indian nationalists and the Indian National Congress embraced his idea.
- The scale and success of the campaign surprised the British authorities and was a huge inspiration to millions of Indians.
- However, in 1922, demonstrations became violent and Gandhi ended the movement and went on a fast to encourage the violence to end.
- Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. Many nationalists were left discouraged by events.
Civil Disobedience Campaign 1930
- The Salt Satyagraha resulted in millions of Indians breaking the law by making their own salt or buying illegal salt. In just one month, 60,000 Indians were arrested for these actions.
- Gandhi called for the boycott of British goods and especially British cloth.
- For the first time in the movement’s history women were actively involved. Thousands of women marched and made salt. The British authorities were concerned that this would make the work of their police even more challenging.
- Gandhi was again arrested but was released following an international outcry about British actions in India.
- There were outbreaks of violence from both the British and Indians, which undermined the campaign.
- There were no concessions made by the British as a direct result of the Civil Disobedience Campaign. However, the Round Table Conferences (1930–1932) took place to attempt to address Indian grievances.
- There was disagreement amongst the Indian National Congress regarding the methods adopted and most Muslims did not support the movement.
Quit India 1942
- In 1942, the British sent the (Stafford) Cripps Mission to negotiate with Congress and secure Indian support for the war. Congress was not satisfied with Cripps’s proposals and did not like the idea of British continued control during the war or the offer of secession to any part of the country afterwards.
- Gandhi and Congress supported the Quit India civil disobedience campaign demanding that Britain should leave India immediately.
- The effects of the campaign were that the British responded with mass detentions of Congress members and the use of emergency powers to control unrest. Civil disobedience continued well into 1943.
- Political kudos was gained by Jinnah and the Muslim League, which continued to back the British war effort; support for other smaller political parties grew.
- There are different opinions about the effectiveness of the Quit India Campaign. Some candidates may argue that it paved the way for Archibald Wavell’s actions and the progression towards independence. Others may say that it achieved very little and that it exacerbated the divide between Congress and the League and this ultimately led to the partition of India.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
With reference to two Southeast Asian countries, to what extent did the Japanese occupation lead to the emergence of nationalism?
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the extent to which Japanese occupation led to the emergence of nationalism in two Southeast Asian countries. Candidates could argue that nationalist movements were strong before the Second World War. Popular choices may be French Indochina and Indonesia. These two have been used as examples below.
Indicative content
Indonesia
- In 1927, Sukarno established the Partai Nasional Indonesia, PNI (Indonesian National Party). It opposed imperialism and gained support amongst young educated Indonesians who were frustrated at the limits they faced under Dutch rule.
- The party split during Sukarno’s imprisonment into two groups—one promoted mass agitation (Sukarno) and one focused on the educated elite (Hatta).
- In 1942, when the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies, Sukarno and Hatta were willing to support the Japanese and Sukarno gained control of a militia of 2 million men. By 1945, the Japanese allowed the creation of a quasi-legislature, which discussed the future of Indonesia as an independent state. Sukarno’s collaboration set up the basis for independence.
- Following the Japanese surrender Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian Independence and began to take control. When the Dutch attempted to regain control of Indonesia, Sukarno was able to use his militia to fight them.
- Sukarno’s imprisonment by the Dutch in 1948 led to international outrage and eventually the Dutch were forced to accept Indonesian Independence in 1949.
French Indochina
- In 1927, the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang (VNQDD) was formed and it led violent protests against the French. The VNQDD was crushed by the French authorities in 1930.
- Ho Chi Minh went on to create the Indochinese Communist Party, which gained significant peasant support in the 1930s.
- Cambodia and Laos had limited nationalist movements before the war. In Cambodia Son Ngoc Thanh had begun publishing the nationalist newspaper Nagaravatta. In Laos, the Lao Renovation Movement (Lao Nhay) was formed.
- Vichy French authorities continued to administer French Indochina during the Japanese occupation.
- Ho Chi Minh developed the Viet Minh in 1941 with the aim of fighting the French and the Japanese using guerrilla tactics. His methods proved to be highly successful. In Laos, many Laotians fought alongside French agents using guerrilla tactics. Vichy French authorities dealt with nationalist protests quickly and harshly throughout the war.
- Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnamese independence in September 1945 and King Sihanouk decreed an independent Kampuchea in the same year. However, both countries would have to fight for many years for full independence.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.