Question
“Poor military leadership led to the defeat of the Axis powers in Europe.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must offer a considered and balanced review of the range of factors that led to the defeat of the Axis powers with a focus on military leadership. Hitler and, to a lesser extent, Mussolini dominated their armed forces and very often did not take the advice of military professionals when making decisions.
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Poor military leadership:
• Can be seen in a number of ways: Hitler’s decision to halt the advance on Dunkirk; the invasion of the Soviet Union while Britain was still undefeated; Hitler’s refusal to allow strategic retreat, for example at Stalingrad, and the use of almost the last of Germany’s resources in the Battle of the Bulge. During the Battle of Britain, the Nazis’ decision to bomb London rather than continuing with attacks on the airfields is further evidence of poor military leadership. In the case of Mussolini, launching attacks on Greece and the British in Egypt when Italian forces had not recovered from fighting in Spain and Abyssinia would be appropriate examples.
Other areas for discussion:
• Resources on both sides were also crucial in the early stages: Britain had the resources of her empire as well as US support (Lend-Lease for example) once the US entered the war the Allies were able to produce weapons in far greater numbers. The contribution of the Soviet Union was also extensive in terms of resources. Italy had limited resources and although Germany adopted a wartime economy, it was unable to replace lost materiel as rapidly and in such
volume as the Allies.
• In terms of manpower the Axis powers were completely overstretched fighting on too many fronts simultaneously whereas the Allies had infinite sources of manpower from the US, the Soviet Union and the British Empire.
• As the war became a war of attrition these factors were very significant and some may argue it was crucial decisions such as that taken at Dunkirk that extended the war. Whereas others may argue that the decisions to invade the Soviet Union and to declare war on the US were key to the defeat of the Axis powers.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the contribution of King Juan Carlos to the establishment of democracy in Spain.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the process by which democracy was established in Spain and how far Juan Carlos played a crucial role in this process.
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The impact of King Juan Carlos:
• Juan Carlos was designated as heir to Franco in 1969, which pleased conservative elements and the army. He supported the appointment of Suarez as prime minister because he was skilled and realistic enough to steer reform through the Cortes. Juan Carlos made his support for constitutional monarchy clear, and he rejected publically the attempted coup of 1981. The king was very aware of the public demand for democracy and thus made no attempt to retain the powers that Franco had enjoyed as head of state.
• Some may argue that Juan Carlos’s main contribution was his role as a unifying figure: conservatives, the Army and the Church were happy to see the return of the monarchy. The Left perhaps saw him as a temporary compromise before Spain became a republic again and most Francoists were satisfied as he was designated Franco’s heir.
Other factors:
• Political groups such as the Socialists and the Trade Unions were willing to work with the technocrats to find ways to move away from Francoism without risking violence.
• The role of politicians such as Suarez was also crucial. Suarez was able to steer through the Law of Political Reform and the new Constitution of 1978 without alarming the more conservative elements in Spanish society because of his Francoist past.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“While there was limited political change, there was significant economic development in Spain in the period from 1939 to 1975.” Discuss.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
The main focus of the question is the political and economic developments in Spain during the Franco regime. Candidates must offer a considered and balanced review of the nature of politics throughout the period and some may argue that the regime became less repressive by the 1970s but was still essentially authoritarian and undemocratic. However, the economy developed significantly from a limited industrial base in the 1940s and 1950s to a major industrial economy by the late 1960s.
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Politics
- The state was authoritarian and repressive in the post-Civil War period as opposition groups were either imprisoned or executed on a significant scale. Franco was the dominant political figure, acting as Head of State for life (1947 Law of Succession).
- The Falange Española Tradicionalista, FET (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx) was the only political grouping allowed to function. Trade unions were banned and many opposition political leaders were exiled. Franco relied on the support of the Church, the Army and armed police (Guardia Civil) to maintain control. In 1969, Prince Juan Carlos was designated Franco’s heir.
- By the late 1960s there was some relaxation of censorship and some unionization but little in the way of real political debate. By the early 1970s, Franco was less directly involved in government and some opposition political activity began. Significant political change only came with the 1976 Law of Political Reform following Franco’s death.
Economic development
- There was slow recovery from the Civil War and the economy stagnated.
- From the mid-1950s, Spain began to receive some American funding and the country began to trade internationally again.
- From 1959 onwards there was a series of economic reforms that encouraged industrial development and tourism all of which contributed to the Spanish Miracle and stronger economic growth.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
With reference to one Western European state (excluding Germany and Spain), discuss the main aspects of domestic policy in the years from 1945 to 2000.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
This is an opportunity for candidates to consider their national history in the period following the Second World War (former Eastern Bloc states are not relevant here). Details will vary according to the chosen example but identification of key trends should be supported with specific detailed evidence.
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- Political, economic and social policies may be considered and key trends could include the development of welfare provision, an extension of the franchise where appropriate or constitutional change as in, for example, France.
- Changing levels of state intervention and the move towards a market economy or, in many cases, more integration within the European Union are also valid areas for debate.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.