Question
Evaluate the reasons for, and the consequences of, Nixon’s covert operations in Chile.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to appraise the reasons why Nixon used covert operations against Chile and the Allende government and the consequences of those actions both in Chile and in the US.
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Reasons
• The reasons for covert operations begin with the US policy of containment and the fear that another communist government was being established in the hemisphere. It was thought that this communist government might lead to other communist governments in Latin America.
• Another concern could be the impact on American businesses in Chile with the possibility of them being nationalized.
Consequences
• The consequences of the actions include the undermining of the Chilean economy and the destabilization of Allende’s government, and the assassination of Chilean General Rene Schneider because he was seen as unwilling to support a coup. In September 1973, the military did stage a coup resulting in the overthrow of Allende’s democratically elected government and in his death.
• Pinochet quickly established a repressive government that arrested perhaps more than 10,000 Chileans within the first few months of the coup. Despite years of human rights abuses, Pinochet continued to be supported by the US. Domestically, Nixon, his Secretary of State Kissinger and the CIA were blamed for the coup. In 1975, the US Senate, through the Church Committee, attempted to uncover the actions taken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and prevent such actions in the future. President Ford issued an executive order forbidding US sanctioned assassinations of foreign leaders.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“After 1945, the foreign policy of countries in the Americas was largely shaped by the Cold War.” Discuss with reference to either Canada or one Latin American country.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates may choose to discuss the foreign policy of either Canada or one specific Latin American country during the Cold War and they should offer a considered and balanced review of the extent to which Cold War issues shaped their foreign policy.
Note: Some countries’ foreign policies became clearly anti-US as a response to US interventionism, for example, Cuba. Others openly supported the US in the Cold War in exchange for trade benefits and weapons (for example military dictatorships) or due to similar ideology, (for example Canada).
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Latin America
• The fact that the US was involved in conflicts in other regions led Latin American countries to diversify their foreign policies, for example, instituting economic exchange and cooperation with the Soviet Union, Japan and Western Europe.
• The aims and impact of the Rio Pact or TIAR (1947) and the hemispheric defence doctrine could be considered, as could the Non Aligned movement.
• The creation of the Organization of American States (1948), aimed at regional solidarity and cooperation among members. It was also founded in an attempt to contain the spread of communism.
• Several regional institutions, such as the Inter-American Development Bank and the Latin American Free Trade Association, were aimed at fostering regional economic integration and reducing dependency on the US. Candidates may argue that these were attempts by countries to detach themselves from Cold War issues, but they could also claim that these institutions were formed as a response to Cold War tensions.
• Events in Cuba—such as the Cuban Revolution, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the economic boycott and Cuba’s relations with the East, as well as Castro’s support for leftist movements both within and outside the region—could be discussed.
Canada
• Canada joined the US in its commitment to containing the spread of communism. It became a member of NATO, sent troops to defend South Korea and joined with the US in NORAD.
• Canada, however, disagreed with US over the Berlin Airlift and its treatment of Cuba and Vietnam.
• It sent forces as part of UN peacekeeping actions in several conflicts, such as Cyprus, Congo, Israel and Egypt, in order to restore peace in the area and Cold War tensions were largely irrelevant.
• By the late 1960s, Canada had distanced itself from the US, but by the mid-1980s had re-established closer ties.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the application of Truman’s policy of containment in the Americas.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the policy of containment and apply specific evidence as to its application in the Americas. Consideration may be given to either the depth or breadth of knowledge exhibited. While most candidates may concentrate on Truman’s presidency, others might discuss the application of this policy under other presidents up to 1981.
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• The creation of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947 would lead to the use of covert operations against Latin American governments and political movements that were suspected of supporting socialist agendas seen as sympathetic to communism.
• In 1947, the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Pact) provided a regional “self-defence” agreement to oppose aggression or armed attack against any American state. This agreement bypassed the authority of the United Nations and would be used by the US to justify overt and covert action against democracies that supported liberal reforms.
• In 1948, the Truman administration helped to establish the Organization of American States (OAS) to provide collective security in the hemisphere and to provide mediation in disputes among its members. The 21 countries pledged to oppose communism in the Americas. The main US objective was maintenance of the status quo.
• In Chile, Gonzalez Videla won the support of the Communist Party in the 1946 elections and included three Communists in his initial cabinet. In response to pressure from the Truman administration, Gonzalez Videla removed the Communist members of his cabinet, broke a Communist-led coal miners’ strike and, a year later, outlawed the Communist Party.
• In 1952, responding in part to the request of President Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua, the Truman administration authorised the shipment of weapons and money to groups opposing the democratically elected leader of Guatemala, Arbenz. US motives were largely based on Arbenz’s land reform proposals that threatened the interests of the American-owned United Fruit Company. While the 1952 attempt to remove Arbenz was unsuccessful, Eisenhower would achieve his removal through the covert efforts of the CIA, and thus continued the implementation of containment.
• Canada’s response to containment often required a decision as to whether it would support US Cold War policy or establish a more autonomous foreign policy. These decisions were affected by Canada’ increasing economic interrelationship with the US. In general, Canada was initially quite supportive of Truman’s containment policy, serving as a founding member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and sending over 20,000 soldiers to fight in the Korean Conflict.
• If candidates choose to discuss the containment policy post-Truman, the following items may be discussed: for Eisenhower, they could focus on Guatemala and Cuba; for Kennedy, Cuba; for Johnson, the Dominican Republic; for Nixon, Chile; for Carter, the shift away from containment to human rights.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the domestic effects in the US of its involvement in the Vietnam War.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must offer a considered and balanced review of the impact of the Vietnam War on US society and its institutions. The discussion of effects both during and after the war is relevant.
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• The economic effects include the cost of the war effort and its impact on society, military spending leading to budget deficit and inflation, and the erosion of consumer confidence. It compromised Johnson’s Great Society programme.
• It led Congress to replace the military draft with an all-volunteer army. It contributed to the reduction of the voting age to 18 (“old enough to fight, old enough to vote”). It also led to the restriction of the president’s ability to send American forces into combat without explicit Congressional consent.
• Opposition to the war also had an impact: there were demonstrations and riots, traditional values were questioned, events such as Kent State weakened public trust in the government and led to the questioning of the abilities of their leaders, and the impact of the press also played a role.
• Johnson’s decision not to run in the 1968 elections.
• The impact of the war in the US Presidential campaign and election.
• The war weakened military morale, it changed the attitudes of the people of the US towards similar conflicts and temporarily affected political activity.
• There was a high number of casualties among US soldiers and there was a significant physical and mental toll on war veterans and sections of society.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.