Question
Examine the methods used by Muhammad Ali to establish and maintain power in Egypt.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the ways by which Muhammad Ali established (for example militarily) and then maintained (for example economically) his power in Egypt.
Indicative content
• Muhammad Ali came, with Albanian troops, to Egypt in 1801 to fight against French occupation. With the defeat of the French and the withdrawal of the British, a three-way struggle for power took place between the Ottoman rulers, the Mameluks and the Albanian soldiers sent by the Ottomans. After becoming leader of the latter, Muhammad Ali was appointed governor of Egypt by the Ottomans in 1805, ruling Egypt until 1848.
• He established and maintained power through a combination of methods, including those which demonstrated how ruthless he could be (March 1811 massacre of the Mameluks), and those where his military and political prowess came to the fore (the defeat of the British at Rosetta in 1807, which meant that he could be portrayed as defender of Egypt against foreigners).
• To maintain power he strengthened the state and improved the economy. To these ends, there were a series of reforms including the confiscation of land from the ruling class (and conversion of much of that land to state land), a reduction in the power of religious orders, the forcing of peasants to pay taxes directly to the state, and the establishment of a conscript rather than a mercenary army and navy. For the economy he improved irrigation, expanded the cultivation of cotton and tried to improve state administration and industry.
• Although he suffered military reverses in his campaigns beyond Egypt (his defeat at Navarino in 1827 and the opposition of the Great Powers to the expansion of his power to Syria in 1840), he remained in control of Egypt and this should be the focus of candidates’ responses.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
“The main cause of the Crimean War was the rivalry of the European powers.” Discuss.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the degree to which Great Power rivalry caused the Crimean War. The question invites candidates to make a judgment as to the significance and/or importance of a range of factors; however, emphasis must be on the importance of European rivalries.
Indicative content
• Hostilities began in 1853 with fighting between Ottoman and Russian forces (the Battle of Sinope). Britain and France declared war on Russia in March 1854. The war concluded in 1856 with the Treaty of Paris.
• In support of the statement, one could argue that an immediate cause of the war was French and Russian disagreement over the privileges of the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches in the Holy Places of Palestine. More broadly, both Britain and France feared Russian expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and the danger that this would pose to their interests and their long-standing policy of preventing the breakup of the Ottoman Empire.
• For balance, candidates could argue that the fuel for the war was the clash between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over the status of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Russia wished to establish a Russian protectorate over them (the Menschikov Mission of 1853); however to the Sultan, this appeared to be a threat to Ottoman independence.
• Another line of argument could be that the war broke out, not so much because of entrenched rivalries, but rather because of diplomatic failure and diplomatic inconsistency. The Vienna Note of 1853 that was issued by the Great Powers was rejected by the Sultan and the Powers failed to co-operate to enforce it. Further, Aberdeen, then the British foreign secretary and later prime minister, had seemingly suggested to the Tsar that the British would not object to a partition of the Ottoman Empire in 1844. However, the British ambassador to Constantinople, Stratford Canning encouraged the Sultan to reject Russian pressure and promised British protection.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the causes of the Greek War of Independence.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates must offer a considered and balanced review of the various causes of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832). These should include the origins of the rebellion and could also be extended to include the reasons why the rebellion was able to survive the Egyptian intervention by Ibrahim Pasha.
Indicative content
- The Greek War of Independence was a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire and led to the establishment of an independent Greek kingdom in 1832.
- The origins of the Greek rebellion can be traced to the Philiki Etaireia, whose leader Alexander Ypsilantis invaded Turkish Moldavia in March 1821. Although he was soon defeated, revolts broke out across Greece, especially in the Peloponnese, and an independent Greece was declared in January 1822.
- Internal division among the Greeks and the arrival of Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha posed a severe challenge to the rebellion. However, the War of Independence continued to a successful conclusion, in part due to the role of foreign powers with the defeat of the EgyptoOttoman forces at Navarino by Britain, France and Russia in October 1827.
- The longer-term causes of the rebellion could include the sense of Greek identity, fostered by the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek language. The abuses suffered under Ottoman rule, for example the execution of Gregory V of Constantinople in 1821, aggravated the situation further as did the spread of French revolutionary ideas and the growing economic success of some Greek communities.
- Events in Serbia, where the Ottomans faced prolonged rebellions from 1804 onwards, may also have inspired the Greeks and underlined the relative weakness of Ottoman power.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the causes of the Balkan Wars of 1912 to 1913.
Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the reasons why the Balkan Wars of 1912 to 1913 broke out. One approach could be to look at international and domestic causes of these conflicts. Candidates are likely to focus mainly on the causes of the First Balkan War.
Indicative content
- The First Balkan War of 1912 to 1913 saw the Ottoman Empire lose almost all of its remaining European territory after it was defeated by the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria).
- The Second Balkan War of 1913 occurred when Bulgaria was in dispute with Romania, Greece and Serbia over conquests in Macedonia, with Bulgaria being defeated.
- For international causes of the First Balkan War, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire by Italy in 1911 to 1912 emboldened the Balkan states by underlining the relative weakness of the Ottoman Empire. Russia was also keen to advance its interests in the region and encouraged the formation of the Balkan League. Russia wished to recover its prestige in the region after its diplomatic setback over the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908/1909).
- Domestically, Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia were all relatively new nation states that aimed at territorial expansion while the Ottoman Empire was weakened after its defeat by Italy and by its internal political problems.
- In addition, within the Ottoman Empire’s remaining European provinces, there were a series of uprisings. For example, from March 1910, there was an uprising in Albania against tax collection and military recruitment. There was also an ongoing guerrilla campaign against the Ottomans in Macedonia. Again, this undermined Ottoman power and encouraged the countries of the Balkan League to take military action.
- For causes specific to the Second Balkan War, the rival territorial ambitions of the Balkan League countries plus Romania will probably be the main factor discussed.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.