Question
To what extent did popular support for the aims and ideology of one authoritarian/single-party leader contribute to the rise to power of that leader?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the importance of aims and ideology in the rise to power of a leader but also other factors that may have been less, more or equally important. Candidates may discuss aims and ideology separately or together. Aims could be interpreted as the method for gaining public support because they may have been a more accessible way to communicate ideology.
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Aims and ideology
• Candidates may begin by outlining the main aspects of the aims and ideology of the chosen leader and how this contributed to popular support.
• In some cases, it may be relevant to consider such factors as ultra-nationalism, economic reform or territorial ambitions in gaining support.
• Aims may include calls for the abandonment of unpopular governmental policies or diplomatic agreements. Similarly, some leaders called for specific changes to the economic structure of a state to alleviate hardship or the recovery of territory lost through war or the need to acquire new territory. These aims may have gained popular support or, alternatively, failed to resonate.
Other factors
• The use of force and intimidation may also have reduced opposition or created a climate of fear that encouraged support for a strong leader.
• Propaganda and the media may have been used to vilify opponents as well as to gain support.
• Circumstances such as poor economic conditions or weak government may have made aims and ideology more appealing.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Compare and contrast the conditions that led to the rise to power of two authoritarian/single-party leaders.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
“Conditions” refer to the circumstances that prevailed during the rise to power of a leader and, although the methods used by the leader may be of relevance to illustrate the importance of certain conditions, these would not be the main focus of the response. Candidates are required to give an account of the similarities and differences in the conditions that were relevant to the rise to power of the chosen leaders in order to demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question.
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• Economic hardship as a result of high unemployment or high inflation may have influenced the appeal of a strong leader who promised to address these problems.
• The failure of current governments to ameliorate the impact of crises on the population may have resulted in frustration and the search for alternative leadership.
• The perceived weakness of a government associated with defeat in war may have provided opportunities for a would-be leader to rally support by calling for a resurgence in militarism and revanchism.
• A promise to rescind government policies perceived as prejudiced against minorities or, alternatively, giving undue support for minorities may have increased support for a leader.
• When ignored by incumbent governments, a leader’s promise to address demands for increased workers’ rights and/or the re-distribution of wealth or land may have garnered support.
• The leader of a political movement may have received support from external powers to assist with the overthrow of a government.
• Promises to address/reverse social change brought about by war or a shift in economic wealth may have provided opportunities for leaders to appeal to more conservative elements in the population.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the treatment of religious groups and minorities in two authoritarian/single-party states, each chosen from a different region.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to appraise the treatment of religious groups and minorities in two states, chosen from different regions. Candidates may elect to adopt a comparative approach; however, this is not a requirement. Nevertheless, a reasoned conclusion is expected.
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Positive actions by the state
• Laws may have been passed to prevent discrimination.
• Financial aid may have been given to help establish, or preserve, places of worship or housing for minorities.
• Facilities may have been provided to allow for separate education for the children of minorities/religious groups (although this could also be seen in a negative light).
Negative actions by the state
• Laws may have been passed to impose restrictions on the religious practices of certain groups, or on their right to worship freely.
• Laws may have been passed to deny rights to minorities.
• Education in their own language may have been denied to minorities.
• Genocide may have been attempted, or carried out, against groups in certain states.
• Financial penalties may have been imposed by the state, for example, through the application of additional taxation.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent did the structure and organization of government in Germany between 1933 and 1939 contribute to Hitler’s maintenance of power?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider whether the structure and organization of the government assisted Hitler in his maintenance of power up to 1939. Other factors that may have been as, or more, important may also be identified.
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The structure and organisation of government
• The Enabling Law (March 1933) allowed Hitler to rule without the Reichstag, which still existed but rarely met. There was also a Cabinet, but this, too, met only infrequently.
• In 1933, Hitler replaced all the governors of the Länder with Nazis and, in theory, this gave him control over different regions.
• As Chancellor, Hitler had five offices that directly represented him and so confusion over duties and control over the implementation of policies was commonplace.
• The nature of the Führerprinzip meant that all authority devolved from Hitler who, alone, had the ultimate say on all policy making.
• The hierarchy within the government of the Third Reich was not clear and this led to internal rivalry (for example, Heinrich Himmler and Ernst Rohm in 1934) and this can be seen as inhibiting cooperation and efficiency.
• “Working towards the Fuhrer” became the key phrase to describe how subordinates would offer ideas and policies that would be in line with Nazi ideology but that could also be viewed as spontaneous and not necessarily part of an overall plan.
• Such factors may be seen as weakening Hitler’s control over the Reich or, alternatively, as helping him to maintain power by not being directly responsible for policy-making.
Other factors
• Hitler’s apparently successful economic policies that, for example, reduced unemployment and increased production.
• A strong ideology with concepts such as Gleichschaltung and Volksgemeinschaft that promoted social cohesion.
• The use of scapegoats such as the Jews and the Roma, as well as campaigns to rid Germany of people who were deemed unfit or unable to contribute to the well-being of the state.
• Propaganda and the creation of various organizations to unite workers, the youth and/or women.
• In 1934, the army swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler and so brought this institution under his control and its support was further enhanced by a drive for rearmament and a successful foreign policy that renounced many of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles (although for Topic 3, foreign policy need not be mentioned).
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Examine the role of education and propaganda in the maintenance of power in Mao’s China.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the role of education and propaganda and how it was used to help maintain power in China during Mao’s rule.
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Education
• Literacy campaigns were carried out in the early years of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to enable the population to read party propaganda and to become familiar with party ideology.
• Mao’s personality cult was strongly linked to his writings and, during the Cultural Revolution, to the “Thoughts of Chairman Mao”. Familiarity with his writing and “thoughts” was an important aspect of political and social control.
• Children were exposed to Maoist teachings throughout their education and this was intended to make them devotees of Mao and so impose conformity of ideology; The Young Pioneer youth movement ensured that children from primary school onwards were familiar with Mao’s teaching.
• The Red Guards were the vanguard of the Cultural Revolution, but it may be argued that this was the antithesis of education as Mao was very critical of how it had remained the preserve of the bourgeoisie.
• Candidates may argue that Mao took charge of education at this time and turned it into his own preserve. This could then be linked to politics as it assisted Mao to recover his authority over the state and so to maintain power following the failure of the Great Leap Forward.
Propaganda
• The use of popular campaigns involved the whole population in carrying out policies aimed at ending corruption (3-Antis and 5-Antis), this gave a sense of everyone being part of the revolution and affirmed the authority of Mao and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
• The Speak Bitterness Campaign rallied support in the countryside for the state and against landlords.
• The Hundred Flowers Campaign was followed swiftly by the Anti-Rightist campaign with perceived opponents being sent to thought-reform camps. This helped to consolidate Party control over the population.
• The Great Leap Forward and all the propaganda associated with it attempted to revolutionize family life, suppressing individualism and emphasizing the collective as a social unit that, also, was more easily controlled.
• During the Cultural Revolution, the distribution of the Little Red Book meant that everyone had to learn the Thoughts of Chairman Mao consolidating Mao’s personality cult and his control over the Party and the state.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
With reference to Castro (Cuba) or Nasser (Egypt), to what extent did the use of force contribute to his maintenance of power?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider how far the use of force contributed to the maintenance of power by the chosen leader.
Indicative content
Castro
• Show trials were used to punish opponents.
• CDR (Committees for the Defense of the Revolution), an important form of public surveillance, were used to prevent counter-revolutionary activity.
• Labour camps were used to “re-educate”, although these were closed in 1968.
• The Mariel boatlift and other forms of emigration could also be mentioned.
• Other factors may include: the use of propaganda; populist policies; attempts to improve education and health care; economic support from the USSR; US attempts to destabilize his regime that gave Castro a scapegoat for Cuba’s problems and an external enemy to unite the people.
Nasser
• The military was fundamental to Nasser’s rule and provided a base for state security.
• Prisons were used to hold Communists and members of the Muslim Brotherhood, in particular, and opponents in general.
• A large security apparatus was used to remove political rivals or opponents.
• Other factors may include: the cult of personality that flourished especially as Nasser was both charismatic and a strong orator; the strong appeal of nationalism and Pan-Arabism; the use of external enemies to unite the population; widespread use of propaganda, especially the radio station, “The Voice of the Arabs” that broadcast Nasser’s speeches in Egypt and elsewhere; anti-imperialist policies such as the nationalization of the Suez Canal; the building of the Aswan Dam and his support, in general, for the fellahin. The apparent benevolence of Nasser, as seen in a description of Egypt as “a dictatorship without a dictator”.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.