Question
“Democratic electoral systems led to stable governments.” Discuss with reference to two post-1945 states.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Responses will offer a considered and balanced review of the electoral systems in the candidates’ chosen states, focusing on how democracy led (or failed to lead) to stable governments. Candidates may refer to different types of democratic electoral systems such as proportional representation, electoral colleges and majority rule.
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• Assessment of stability may include the longevity of administrations and their ability to tackle political, social and economic challenges.
• Candidates may analyse the outcomes of elections to assess the importance of decisive mandates that may have contributed to stability.
• There may be consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of, for example, coalition governments and how far these may have more accurately reflected political opinion but may have been less stable.
• There may be consideration of the electoral system in a constitutional context: for example, for the US, the relationship between presidential, Senate and Congressional elections, and how that affected the stability of the government could be mentioned.
• To challenge the statement, candidates may argue that democratic systems are too dependent on short-term support and that leaders are less likely to introduce unpopular but, perhaps, necessary policies to address, for example, economic crises or the conservation of resources.
• Furthermore, candidates may argue that the ideology of democracy itself promotes governmental stability because of the belief that change occurs via the ballot box.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
To what extent were the methods used by 20th-century political parties similar to those used by pressure (interest/lobby) groups?
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that the methods used by political parties were comparable with those used by pressure groups. Arguments will be supported by a range of appropriate examples.
Indicative content
Similarities
• Both political parties and pressure groups relied on attracting members and financial support, although some pressure groups, such as trade unions, represented the interests of specific groups closed to the general public.
• In some cases, political parties, like pressure groups, focused on a narrow range of issues, for example the Green Parties who focused on environmental issues.
• Both political parties and pressure groups used methods such as rallies, advertisements and poster campaigns.
• Both may have offered financial support to political candidates.
Differences
• Political parties normally worked within the political system and aimed to gain direct representation inside elected assemblies: pressure groups relied more on lobbying these political parties.
• Pressure groups commonly focused on a narrow issue or range of issues whereas political parties tended to look more broadly at a wide range of issues.
• Political parties had to develop a programme for government if they wanted to be credible as a governing party whereas pressure groups did not.
• Political parties rarely took direct action such as civil disobedience campaigns although these could quite commonly have been used by pressure groups.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the ways in which two 20th-century democratic states responded to the challenges posed by either ethnic or religious groups.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to consider the ways in which two democracies approached challenges that arose from the presence of different ethnic or religious groups within the state. The groups may represent a majority or a minority of the population and the ways in which the democracies addressed the challenges may be both positive and negative.
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Ethnicity
• In some countries, for example post-imperial or post-colonial countries, ethnic diversity may have challenged the legitimacy of the state that may have been established according to the principle of self-determination based upon a homogenous national group.
• In others states, the immigration of ethnic groups may have caused destabilization and inter-ethnic conflict.
• Ethnic groups may have suffered discrimination and disadvantage, due to being under-represented in a democratic system that favoured the majority.
• The ways in which the state responded to such challenges may have included: ensuring the political representation of ethnic groups; legislation to protect and promote ethnic languages and culture; legislation that outlawed racial/ethnic discrimination; educational policies that encouraged the recognition of a country’s ethnic diversity.
Religion
• In some countries, there were clashes between the state and religious bodies over particular issues such as divorce, abortion and gay rights.
• In some countries, religious belief had an impact on political debate with the religion of politicians having a significant impact on electoral success. There may even have been the adoption of a state religion.
• Alternatively, some democracies were clear and determined in their secularism. Candidates may consider the reasons for this, and the degree of success achieved.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the effectiveness of economic policies in either Weimar Germany (1919–1933) or Argentina under Alfonsin (1983–1989)
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Candidates are required to appraise the effectiveness of the economic policies pursued in their chosen country. Successes and failures should be identified and explained. Candidates may also consider the impact of economic policies upon society in general in order to assess effectiveness.
Indicative content
Weimar Germany
• Following the end of the First World War Weimar Germany was faced with significant inflation, unemployment, and the need to meet increased welfare bills to help support the widows, orphans and casualties of war. It may be argued that, in the early years of the republic, the government was reluctant to reform the economy as this would be seen as facilitating reparation payments.
• The Ruhr Crisis of 1923 resulted in the printing of money to meet government expenditure and this led to hyperinflation. There may be analysis of the highly effective measures taken by Gustav Stresemann (Chancellor from August to November 1923) and Hjalmar Schacht in revaluing the currency. The Dawes Plan may also be mentioned and linked to the boost that US loans gave to the faltering economy.
• During the “Golden years” (1924–1928) the German economy appeared to prosper and expenditure on public housing schemes, for example, increased significantly, but there was a dependency on US loans.
• Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, problems arose as foreign loans were recalled, banks failed and unemployment soared to at least 6 million (although there was no inflation at this time). Reluctant to introduce austerity measures, Chancellor Müller resigned in 1930 and his successor, Brüning earned the sobriquet “The Hunger Chancellor” for his willingness to cut benefits and impose deflationary policies.
• Candidates may argue that it was the upturn in the world economy rather than government policies that resulted in the slight falls in unemployment by late 1932.
Alfonsin
• Candidates should focus on the struggles of the administration to address inflation, budget deficit and foreign debt. Meanwhile, tax evasion and the unprofitability of state enterprises compounded the problems. Alfonsin inherited a foreign debt of over US$40,000,000,000 with inflation running at over 400 per cent.
• Policies included printing money to tackle the deficit, the Austral Plan (which introduced a new currency and imposed strict controls on wages and prices), cutting military spending and attempts at privatization.
• Candidates may suggest that external factors also had an impact on the economy. These included falling commodity prices, climate extremes such as droughts and floods, which affected agricultural production, and the collapse of share prices in 1987.
• Candidates may argue that although Alfonsin achieved some success in his economic policies, as by the end of 1985, inflation and the government deficit had fallen dramatically, it was only temporary.
• By 1989 the economy was once again in recession, inflation was rampant, and foreign debt repayments were overdue. It was this economic crisis that led him to hand over power to his successor before his term was over.
• Candidates may argue that that Alfonsin’s priority was the establishment of democracy and his economic policies foundered on a failure both to confront vested interests and conduct fundamental reforms.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Evaluate the success of social policies in either India (1947–1964) or South Africa (1991–2000).
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
Responses should offer an appraisal of the successes and failures of social policy in their chosen country. They may focus on policies towards women and education, coupled with social policies that were distinctive to either India or South Africa, such as the caste system or apartheid.
Indicative content
India
• Nehru’s educational policies saw the establishment of key educational institutions, such as the Institutes of Medical Sciences, Technology and Management, and the extension of primary, secondary and adult education.
• ‘Untouchability’ was abolished by Article 17 of the Indian constitution and outlawed in 1955, but it may be argued that the law failed to produce the desired change.
• Laws were passed that promoted monogamy, women’s right to divorce and to inherit land and wealth although it may be argued that attempts to improve the rights of women met with limited success.
• A land reform programme was attempted in order to reduce the concentration of land ownership among the wealthy but its application was limited.
• Attempts were made to promote Hindi as the national language, although resistance from non-Hindu speakers as well as the universality of English meant that it was not completely successful.
• Some answers may question Nehru’s top-down approach to reform and propose that a focus on the grass roots may have produced better results. The placing of so much responsibility on state governments to enforce legislation may also be seen as a reason for limited success.
South Africa
• With regard to education, attempts were made to integrate schools and to provide a better standard of education, although these attempts had only limited impact on improvements in teaching and attainment for the black majority.
• Public health policy was intended to direct investment towards primary and community care. The success of this policy was affected, however, by the closure of nursing colleges and the reduction of doctor’s salaries as this reduced the numbers of trained medical staff. The existence of an AIDS epidemic also the increased pressure on health care facilities (as well as other social programmes).
• Discrimination on the grounds of gender was prohibited by the constitution, and new laws were passed to promote women’s rights. There were significant barriers to success in this field, however, and progress was limited.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
Question
Discuss the reasons why Johnson was more successful than Eisenhower and Kennedy in securing the passage of civil rights legislation.
▶️Answer/Explanation
Ans:
This question focuses on the reasons why more was achieved by Johnson than his two predecessors. Candidates may compare the political climate in which the presidents operated, the presidents’ motivation and commitment to civil rights and their ability to enact legislation, which was often influenced by the level of support in Congress.
Indicative content
• Eisenhower continued the desegregation of the military and some progress was made in the desegregation of education, for example, Little Rock, 1957. The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 were both passed during his administration although he had little to do with these. Kennedy attempted to facilitate the voting rights of people in the South and to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1963 but was assassinated before significant change could be achieved. Johnson, however, was able to build on Kennedy’s actions and utilize changing public attitudes to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and gain approval of the 24th Amendment, which eliminated poll taxes.
• With regard to political position, Eisenhower, despite victories in 1952 and 1956, had control over Congress for only two years while Kennedy had a very narrow victory in 1960 and had no command over Congress. Johnson had a landslide victory in 1964 and enjoyed a great deal of support in Congress and so was much better placed to pass legislation.
• With reference to their commitment to the cause, Eisenhower did not prioritize civil rights, Kennedy was preoccupied with foreign affairs and Johnson made social change, including civil rights, a priority.
• Public attitudes changed over time and events such as the Freedom Riders, the March on Washington, the Selma March the influence of leaders such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, made the nation more aware of inequality and discrimination and more likely, by 1964, to support desegregation.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.